Consumer Behavior,
Eighth Edition
SCHIFFMAN & KANUK
Chapter 7
Consumer Learning
7-1
The Importance of Consumer
Learning to New Product Success
• Why did these products fail?
– Listerine Toothpaste
– Ben-Gay Aspirin
– Oreo Little Fudgies
• Why did PocketPaks succeed?
7-2
Importance of Learning
• Marketers must teach consumers:
–
–
–
–
7-3
where to buy
how to use
how to maintain
how to dispose of products
Learning Theories
• Behavioral Theories:
Theories based on the
premise that learning
takes place as the
result of observable
responses to external
stimuli. Also known
as stimulus response
theory.
7-4
• Cognitive Theories:
A theory of learning
based on mental
information
processing, often in
response to problem
solving.
Consumer
Learning
7-5
A process by which
individuals acquire the
purchase and
consumption
knowledge
and experience
that they apply to
future related behavior.
Learning Processes
• Intentional:
• Incidental:
learning acquired as
learning acquired
a result of a careful
by accident or
search for
without much effort
information
7-6
Elements of Learning Theories
• Motivation
• Cues
• Response
• Reinforcement
7-7
Reinforcement
7-8
A positive or
negative outcome
that influences the
likelihood that a
specific behavior
will be repeated in
the future in
response to a
particular cue or
stimulus.
Figure 7.1 Product Usage Leads to
Reinforcement
7-9
Behavioral Learning Theories
• Classical Conditioning
• Instrumental Conditioning
• Modeling or Observational Learning
7-10
Classical
Conditioning
7-11
A behavioral learning
theory according to
which a stimulus is
paired with another
stimulus that elicits a
known response that
serves to produce the
same response when
used alone.
Instrumental
(Operant)
Conditioning
7-12
A behavioral theory of
learning based on a
trial-and-error process,
with habits forced as
the result of positive
experiences
(reinforcement)
resulting from certain
responses or
behaviors.
Figure 7.2A Pavlovian Model of
Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned Stimulus
Meat paste
Unconditioned Response
Salivation
Conditioned Stimulus
Bell
AFTER REPEATED PAIRINGS
Conditioned Stimulus
Bell
7-13
Conditioned Response
Salivation
Figure 7.2B Analogous Model of
Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned Stimulus
Dinner aroma
Unconditioned Response
Salivation
Conditioned Stimulus
6 o’clock news
AFTER REPEATED PAIRINGS
Conditioned Stimulus
6 o’clock news
7-14
Conditioned Response
Salivation
Cognitive Associative Learning
• Classical conditioning is viewed as the
learning of associations among events that
allows the organism to anticipate and
represent its environment.
• From this viewpoint, classical conditioning
is not reflexive action, but rather the
acquisition of new knowledge
7-15
Neo-Pavlovian Conditioning
• Forward Conditioning (CS Precedes US)
• Repeated Pairings of CS and US
• A CS and US that Logically Belong to Each
Other
• A CS that is Novel and Unfamiliar
• A US that is Biologically or Symbolically
Salient
7-16
Strategic Applications of Classical
Conditioning
• Repetition
• Stimulus Generalization
• Stimulus Discrimination
7-17
Repetition
• Repetition
increases strength
of associations and
slows forgetting but
over time may
result in advertising
wearout.
• Cosmetic variations
reduce satiation.
7-18
Figure 7.3 Cosmetic
Variations in Ads
Figure 7.4
Substantive
Variations
7-19
Three-Hit Theory
• Repetition is the basis for the idea that three
exposures to an ad are necessary for the ad
to be effective
• The number of actual repetitions to equal
three exposures is in question.
7-20
Stimulus
Generalization
7-21
The inability to
perceive differences
between slightly
dissimilar stimuli.
Stimulus Generalization and
Marketing
• Product Line, Form and Category
Extensions
• Family Branding
• Licensing
• Generalizing Usage Situations
7-22
Figure 7.5
Product Line
Extension
7-23
Figure 7.6 Product Form
Extensions
7-24
Figure 7.7
Product
Category
Extensions
7-25
Figure 7-8
Shoe
Manufacturer
Licenses
Its Name
7-26
Stimulus
Discrimination
The ability to select
a specific stimulus
from among similar
stimuli because of
perceived
differences.
Positioning
Differentiation
7-27
Figure 7.9
Stimulus
Discrimination
7-28
Figure 7.10 A Model of Instrumental
Conditioning
Stimulus
Situation
(Need goodlooking jeans)
Try
Brand A
Unrewarded
Legs too tight
Try
Brand B
Unrewarded
Tight in seat
Try
Brand C
Unrewarded
Baggy in seat
Try
Brand D
Reward
Perfect fit
Repeat Behavior
7-29
Instrumental Conditioning
• Consumers learn by means of trial and error
process in which some purchase behaviors
result in more favorable outcomes (rewards)
than other purchase behaviors.
• A favorable experience is instrumental in
teaching the individual to repeat a specific
behavior.
7-30
Instrumental Conditioning and
Marketing
• Customer Satisfaction (Reinforcement)
• Reinforcement Schedules
– Shaping
• Massed versus Distributed Learning
7-31
Reinforcement
• Negative
• Positive
Reinforcement:
Reinforcement:
Positive outcomes that Unpleasant or negative
outcomes that serve to
strengthen the
likelihood of a specific encourage a specific
behavior
response
• Example: Ad showing • Example: Ad showing
wrinkled skin as
beautiful hair as a
reinforcement to buy
reinforcement to buy
skin cream
shampoo
7-32
Other Concepts in Reinforcement
• Punishment
– Choose reinforcement rather than punishment
• Extinction
– Combat with consumer satisfaction
• Forgetting
– Combat with repetition
7-33
Observational
Learning
7-34
A process by which
individuals observe
the behavior of
others, and
consequences of
such behavior. Also
known as modeling
or vicarious learning.
Figure 7.11
Consumers
Learn by
Modeling
7-35
Cognitive
Learning
Theory
7-36
Holds that the kind
of learning most
characteristic of
human beings is
problem solving,
which enables
individuals to gain
some control over
their environment.
Figure 7.12
Appeal to
Cognitive
Processing
7-37
Information
Processing
7-38
A cognitive theory of
human learning
patterned after
computer information
processing that
focuses on how
information is stored
in human memory
and how it is
retrieved.
Figure 7.13 Information Processing and
Memory Stores
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Store
Forgotten;
lost
7-39
Rehearsal
Working
Memory
(Shortterm
Store)
Forgotten;
lost
Encoding
Longterm
Store Retrieval
Forgotten;
unavailable
Retention
• Information is stored in
long-term memory
– Episodically: by the order
in which it is acquired
– Semantically: according
to significant concepts
7-40
Table 7.1 Models of Cognitive Learning
Promotional Tricompetent
Model
Model
Sequential
Stages
of
Processing
7-41
Attention
Interest
Desire
Action
Cognitive
Affective
Conative
DecisionMaking
Model
Innovation
Adoption
Model
Awareness
Knowledge
Awareness
Innovation
Decision
Process
Knowledge
Interest
Evaluation Evaluation Persuasion
Purchase
Trial
Decision
Postpurchase Adoption Confirmation
Evaluation
Involvement
Theory
7-42
A theory of consumer
learning which
postulates that
consumers engage in a
range of information
processing activity
from extensive to
limited problem
solving, depending on
the relevance of the
purchase.
Figure 7.14
Figure 7.14
Split Brain
Theory
• Right/ Left Brain
Hemispheres
specialize in certain
functions
7-43
Figure 7.15
Encouraging
Right and
Left Brain
Processing
7-44
Issues in Involvement Theory
• Involvement Theory and Media Strategy
• Involvement Theory and Consumer
Relevance
• Central and Peripheral Routes to Persuasion
• Measures of Involvement
7-45
Central and
Peripheral
Routes to
Persuasion
7-46
A theory that proposes that
highly involved consumers
are best reached through ads
that focus on the specific
attributes of the product (the
central route) while
uninvolved consumers can
be attracted through
peripheral advertising cues
such as the model or the
setting (the peripheral route).
Elaboration
Likelihood
Model
(ELM)
7-47
A theory that suggests
that a person’s level of
involvement during
message processing is
a critical factor in
determining which
route to persuasion is
likely to be effective.
Figure 7.16
Peripheral
Route to
Persuasion
7-48
Figure 7.17 Unexpected Headline
Metaphor Increases Impact
7-49
The Elaboration Likelihood Model
Involvement
HIGH
7-50
LOW
Central
Route
Peripheral
Route
Message
Arguments
Influence
Attitudes
Peripheral
Cues
Influence
Attitudes
Measures of Consumer Learning
• Recognition and Recall Measures
– Aided and Unaided Recall
• Cognitive Responses to Advertising
• Copytesting Measures
• Attitudinal and Behavioral Measures of
Brand Loyalty
7-51
Figure 7.18
Starch
Readership
Scores Measure
Learning
7-52
Phases of Brand Loyalty
•
•
•
•
7-53
Cognitive
Affective
Conative
Action
Figure 7.19
Brand Loyalty As A Function of
Relative Attitude and Patronage
Behavior
Repeat Patronage
High
Low
High
Loyalty
Latent
Loyalty
Low
Spurious
Loyalty
No
Loyalty
Relative
Attitude
7-54