Meteorology C.U.B.A. Study Guide {Chapters #15, #16, AND #17}
[Prentice-Hall: Section 15-1 The Air Around You, Pages 498-501]
o Weather is the condition of the atmosphere at a particular time and place.
o The atmosphere is a layer of gases that surrounds the planet.
Related Link
http://www.educapoles.org/index.php?/multimedia/flash_animations/what_is_the_atmosphere/&uid=115&p
g=8
o The Earth’s atmosphere was very different when the Earth formed 4.5 billion years ago.
Related Link
http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/content/chp03/0302001.html
o The Earth’s atmosphere makes conditions on Earth suitable for living things.
o The Earth’s atmosphere is composed of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapor, and many
other gases, as well as liquids and solids.
[Prentice-Hall: Section 15-2 Air Quality, Pages 504-507]
o Harmful substances in the air, water, or soil are called pollutants.
o Most air pollution is the result of burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil, gasoline, and diesel fuel.
Fossil Fuel Use in Australia, Canada, the USA, Germany, and Japan
The graph below shows the fossil fuel consumption of Australia, Canada, the USA, Germany, and
Japan. For each country, the graph indicates the percentage burned for industry, transportation,
agriculture, services, and residential use.
1. Which country burns the lowest percentage of its fossil fuels for Industry?
2. Which country burns a higher percentage of their fossil fuels on Transportation rather than
Industry?
3. Does Australia burn a higher percentage of its fossil fuels for Transportation or Services?
o Air contains particles as well as gases. These particles come from natural sources {ocean spray,
molds, pollens, forest fires, volcanic eruptions, soil erosion and dust storms} as well as human
activities. Particles made mostly of carbon called soot enter the atmosphere as a result of burning
fossil fuels.
Renewable and Nonrenewable Resources
Because energy can change form, people can use a variety of energy sources to meet their needs. One of
the main uses of energy is to produce electricity. Like all resources, energy resources can be classified as
either renewable or nonrenewable. Nonrenewable resources form very slowly and can not be replaced in a
human lifetime. As a result, their supply is limited and can be used up. Renewable resources are either
unlimited or can be replaced in a human lifetime. Because nonrenewable energy sources will run out one
day, many people are looking for ways to increase our use of renewable and non-polluting energy resources.
Fossil fuels are non-renewable energy resources that include coal, oil, and natural gas. Most electricitygenerating power plants burn fossil fuels to turn turbines to drive generators that convert energy of motion
into electricity. Unfortunately, burning fossil fuels adds large amounts of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere
which leads to the greenhouse effect, or global warming. Renewable resources include, nuclear fission,
solar power, geothermal energy, hydroelectric power, tidal power, and wind power.
Hydroelectric Power
Nuclear Power
Power From Wind
Solar Power
Geothermal Power
Tidal Power
The Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming
The problem begins when human activities distort and accelerate the natural process by creating more
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere than are necessary to warm the planet to an ideal temperature.
o Burning natural gas, coal, oil, and wood for electricity and gasoline for automobile engines
raises the level of carbon dioxide {CO2} in the atmosphere.
o Some farming practices and land-use changes increase the levels of methane and nitrous oxide.
o Many factories produce long-lasting industrial gases that do not occur naturally, yet contribute
significantly to the enhanced greenhouse effect and "global warming" that is currently under way.
o Deforestation also contributes to global warming. Trees use carbon dioxide and give off oxygen
in its place, which helps to create the optimal balance of gases in the atmosphere. As more forests
are logged for timber or cut down to make way for farming, however, there are fewer trees to
perform this critical function.
o Population growth is another factor in global warming, because as more people use fossil fuels
for heat, transportation and manufacturing the level of greenhouse gases continues to increase. As
more farming occurs to feed millions of new people, more greenhouse gases enter the
atmosphere.
Ultimately, more greenhouse gases mean more infrared radiation trapped and held; which gradually
increases the temperature of the Earth's surface and the air in the lower atmosphere. This would lead to the
following problems.
o Rising temperatures would raise sea levels as well, reducing supplies of fresh water as flooding
occurs along coastlines worldwide and salt water reaches inland.
o Many of the world’s endangered species would become extinct as rising temperatures changed
their habitat.
o Certain vector-borne diseases carried by animals or insects, such as malaria, would become
more widespread as warmer conditions expanded their range.
Related Links
Global Glacier Retreat
http://sciencestage.com/v/7757/global-glacier-retreat.html
A Global Climate Change
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zpu7IZcdzXE
Smog and Acid Rain
o Smog: Nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, and other air pollutants react with one another in the presence
of sunlight to form a mix of ozone and other chemicals called photochemical smog. The ozone in
photochemical smog irritates breathing passages, harms plants, and damages rubber, paint, and some
plastics.
Related Link
http://www.curriki.org/xwiki/bin/view/Coll_NROCscience/Lesson77AnimationPhotochemicalSmog
o Acid Rain: Acid rain forms when nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides combine with water in the air to
form nitric acid and sulfuric acid. Acid rain lowers the pH of streams, rivers, ponds, and lakes
destroying natural habits for organisms. Acid rain can also be strong enough to damage the surfaces
of buildings and statues.
Related Link
http://www.outdoors.org/conservation/mountainwatch/images/haze2-sulfates.gif
[Prentice-Hall: Section 15-3 Air Pressure, Pages 509-514]
o
o
o
o
The atmosphere is a layer of gases that surrounds the planet.
Because air has mass, it has other properties including density and pressure.
Air pressure is the result of the weight of a column of air pushing down on an area.
The Earth’s gravity draws the atmosphere toward the Earth’s surface. For this reason, the Earth’s
atmosphere is the densest at the earth’s surface (D) and becomes less dense as altitude increases (A).
{A Column of the Earth’s Atmosphere}
A
B
C
D
Earth’s Surface
1. How does air pressure change as altitude increases?
2. At which level of the atmosphere is the atmosphere denser, level B or level C?
o Barometers are used to measure atmospheric pressure.
Mercury Barometer
Aneroid Barometer
Recording Barometer
o On some weather maps, you will find curved lines that connect areas where the atmospheric pressure
is the same. These lines of equal pressure are called isobars. (Iso means “equal” and bar means
“pressure.”)
What is the barometric
pressure in this location?
________
?______millibars
o National Weather Service maps indicate air pressure in millibars. One inch of mercury is equal to
33.87 millibars, so 30 inches of mercury is approximately equal to 1,016 millibars.
[Prentice-Hall: Section 15-4 Layers of the Atmosphere, Pages 515-520]
This line
indicates how
temperature
changes as
altitude
increases in the
atmosphere.
As altitude
increases in the
atmosphere, the
atmospheric
pressure
decreases.
Atmospheric Layer
Thermosphere
Mesosphere
Stratosphere
Troposphere
Some Characteristics of Each Layer
The thermosphere extends from 80Km above the Earth’s surface outward into
space. It has no definite outer limit. The lower portion of the thermosphere is
referred to as the ionosphere. Ions in the ionosphere reflect radio waves back to
Earth. The aurora borealis occurs in the ionosphere. The upper portion of the
thermosphere is referred to as the exosphere. Phone calls and television signals
often reach you by way of communication satellites that orbit the Earth in the
exosphere.
Meso means “middle,” so the mesosphere is the middle layer in the earth’s
atmosphere. The mesosphere is the coldest layer of the atmosphere. Most
meteoroids burn up in the mesosphere, producing meteor trails.
Strato is similar to stratum, which means “layer” of “spreading out.” The upper
stratosphere contains a layer of ozone, the three-atom form of oxygen. The
ozone layer absorbs ultraviolet radiation.
The inner or lowest layer of the Earth’s atmosphere. Tropo means “turning” or
“changing.” The conditions in the troposphere are more variable than in other
layers of the atmosphere. The troposphere is where the Earth’s clouds form and
weather occurs.
Related Link:
http://earthguide.ucsd.edu/earthguide/diagrams/atmosphere/
CHAPTER # 16: WEATHER FACTORS
PH 16-1: Energy in the Atmosphere {Pages 526-529}
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
The Electromagnetic Spectrum Animation Link
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com:8100/legacy/college/strahler/0471669695/animations/ch02/animation1.
htm
1. Which type of radiation travels from the sun to the Earth causing you to become sunburned?
2. Which type of radiation can be felt as heat? It is this type of radiation that heats the lower atmosphere by
conduction.
3. Which type of electromagnetic wave has the longest wavelength and is categorized as low frequency?
PH 16-2: Heat Transfer {Pages 532-535}

Reading a Thermometer:
Sample Questions:
1.
Which thermometer records the lowest temperature reading at 66 ºC?
A. Thermometer “A”
C. Thermometer “C”
B. Thermometer “B”
D. Thermometer “D”
2.
Which thermometer reads 70 ºC?
A. Thermometer “A”
B. Thermometer “B”
C. Thermometer “C”
D. Thermometer “D”

Radiation, Conduction, and Convection:
Heat Transfer Animation Links
http://www.wisc-online.com/objects/SCE304/SCE304.swf
http://www.mansfieldct.org/schools/mms/staff/hand/convcondrad.htm
Heat is transferred
into the upper
atmosphere as a
result of convection.
The surface of the Earth is
heated as radiation from the
sun is absorbed.
The lower atmosphere is
heated by conduction since
it comes in contact with the
warm Earth.
1. How does the sun heat the soil of the land differently than the water of the ocean?
2. How is the lower atmosphere heated after the sun heats the Earth by radiation?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------3. In what two ways could the person holding the
pot be burned?
4. How is heat transferred through the water in
the pot?
5. Which of the three types of heat transfer can
occur through empty space?
6. Use the table of energy forms to answer the following question. Which answer best describes the
forms of energy produced by the fire?
SUMMARY OF ENERGY FORMS
Form of Energy
Heat
Potential
Chemical
Nuclear
Electrical
Light
Sound
A.
B.
C.
D.
potential and electrical
nuclear and chemical
heat and light
sound and nuclear
Description
Energy that moves from hot objects to cooler ones
Energy of position or shape
Energy stored in chemical bonds
Energy stored in the nucleus of the atom
Energy of moving electrons
Energy contained in electromagnetic waves
Energy produced by vibrating objects

PH 16-3: Winds {Pages 536-544}
Wind Measurements: Winds are horizontal movements of air from areas of high pressure to areas of
low pressure.
Anemometer
An anemometer measures wind speed in miles
per hour (MPH) or kilometers per hour (KPH).
Wind Vane
A wind vane measures wind direction. The wind
vane points to the direction from which the wind is
coming since that is how winds are named. For
example: A “west wind” comes from the west and
moves towards the east.
1. How does an anemometer work?
2. Describe the movement of a northeast wind in terms of its direction.
3. What is the definition of a wind?

Determining the Wind Chill Factor: The wind chill is the apparent temperature felt on exposed skin
due to wind.
Sample Question: If the Actual Thermometer Reading is 0ºF and the Estimated Wind Speed (in MPH) is 20
MPH, what is the Equivalent Temperature in ºF?
A. 16ºF
B. -10ºF
C. -39ºF
D. -74ºF

Local and Global Winds: All winds are formed because of the unequal heating of the Earth’s
surface. Winds are horizontal movements of air from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure.
Land and Sea Breezes Animation Link
http://www.classzone.com/books/earth_science/terc/content/visualizations/es1903/es1903page01.cfm?chapte
r_no=visualization
1. What time of the day do sea breezes occur?
2. From which direction does the wind blow during
a sea breeze?
3. How does the temperature of the land compare to
the temperature of the sea during a sea breeze?
___________________________________________
4. What time of the day do land breezes occur?
5. From which direction does the wind blow during
a land breeze?
6. How does the temperature of the land compare to
the temperature of the sea during a land breeze?

Global Winds:
Global Winds Link
serc.carleton.edu/eslabs/hurricanes/1b.html
Global Winds Animation Link
http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/genbio/tlw3/eBridge/Chp29/animations/ch29/global_wind_circulation.swf
The Coriolis Effect (P-H Pages # 541-544)
 Why does the Coriolis force cause wind and ocean currents to be deflected?
 In which direction are wind and ocean currents deflected in the northern and southern hemispheres.
http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/earth/coriolis.html
1. Which global wind system brings maritime polar air masses to the west coast of the U.S., but can
prevent maritime polar air masses from moving into the east coast of the U.S.?
2. Dry air sinks at approximately 30º and 90º north and south latitudes forming belts of high pressure.
What types of ecosystems would you expect to find at those latitudes?
3. The Doldrums refers to a low pressure belt that exists along the equator. How does the air move in the
Doldrums, and what kind of ecosystems would you expect to exist on land masses in this region?

Effect of Living Next to Water on Climate:
Coastal Climates, Ocean Currents and Their Impact on Climate (P-H Pages # 575, 611 & 612)
 How does living along the coastline of an ocean moderate the climate?
 How do ocean currents such as the Gulf Stream impact regional climate?
 What determines the temperature of the water an ocean current carries?
http://trc.ucdavis.edu/biosci10v/bis10v/media/ch31/climate_currents_v2.html
Sample Question: Based on the map of South Carolina seen to the
right, which of the following statements is most likely true?
A. Myrtle Beach SC. has colder winters than Conway SC.
B. Conway has a colder climate than Myrtle Beach.
C. Conway has warmer summers that Myrtle Beach.
D. Myrtle Beach has more extreme temperatures than Conway.
PH 16-4: Water in the Atmosphere {Pages 545-546}

The Water Cycle:
Water Cycle Animation Link
http://earthguide.ucsd.edu/earthguide/diagrams/watercycle/






Evaporation is the process in which liquid water changes into a gas. Energy from the sun causes
water on the Earth’s surface to evaporate.
Transpiration is the process in which water moves from a plant’s body to the atmosphere. The sun’s
energy causes water to evaporate of plant leaves.
Condensation is the process in which water vapor (or gaseous water) changes into a liquid. Clouds
form when water vapor in the atmosphere condenses into water droplets.
Precipitation is the release of water to the Earth’s surface in the form of rain, freezing rain, sleet,
snow, or hail.
Runoff is water that moves from land into rivers and streams.
Infiltration and percolation occur as water sinks into, and moves downward through permeable soil
and collects in rocks. This water is referred to as ground-water.
1. What process must occur for water vapor in the atmosphere to become the water droplets that form
clouds?
2. What name is given to the process of water drops evaporating off of the leaves of plants?
3. When the sun shines on a lake, liquid water becomes water vapor by which process?
4. Sometimes precipitation infiltrates or sinks into the ground. Other times, the water moves over the
Earth’s surface into streams, rivers, lakes, or oceans. What do we call this movement of water over
the Earth’s surface?

Watersheds:
Watershed Animation Link
http://techalive.mtu.edu/meec/demo/Watershed.html
A watershed is an area of land that drains rainfall and snowmelt into a particular
body of water. The terrain of the land around the body of water helps define the
watershed. A watershed can include many creeks, streams, and rivers. So it can be
said that a river collects water that flows from its watershed. In Pennsylvania,
many creeks form as runoff moves down the Appalachian Mountains. Creeks and
streams can combine to form rivers. Some rivers eventually flow into lakes. Most
rivers eventually flow into bays or oceans. When this happens, the freshwater from
the rivers mixes with the salt water of the bay or ocean. A large part of Pennsylvania
lies within the Chesapeake Bay watershed. The Chesapeake Bay watershed covers
about 64,000 square miles of land.
Sample Question: Which of the following statements incorrectly
describes the relationship between a river and its watershed?
A. A watershed can contribute pollution to its rivers.
B. A watershed provides eroded sediments to its rivers.
C. A river collects water that flows from its watershed.
D. Watersheds are man-made to prevent rivers from flooding.
Wetlands: Many wetlands are freshwater bodies. Wetlands are areas of land that are under water for all
or part of the year. Wetlands include marshes, swamps, and bogs. Wetlands filter pollutants, excess
nutrients, and sediments out of the water that flows through them, so wetlands improve water quality.
Wetlands also soak up excess water, so they can help prevent flooding.
Wetlands Animation Links
http://www.viddler.com/explore/fuzzeevideo/videos/25/
http://www.acfenvironmental.com/MWanimation.html
Sample Question: A river is polluted by a nearby coal mine. The river eventually flows through a marsh to
a stream. Which of these describes the most likely result of this flow of water through the marsh to the
stream?
A. Biodiversity will decrease in the stream because pollutants will increase.
B. Biodiversity will increase in the stream because water pollution will increase.
C. Biodiversity will decrease in the stream because sedimentation will increase.
D. Biodiversity will remain constant in the stream because the marsh will naturally purify the water.

Relative Humidity: In a psychrometer, there are two thermometers, one with a dry bulb and one with
a wet bulb. Evaporation from the wet bulb lowers the temperature, so that the wet-bulb thermometer
usually shows a lower temperature than that of the dry-bulb thermometer, which measures dry-bulb
temperature. When the air temperature is below freezing, however, the wet bulb is covered with a thin
coating of ice and yet may be warmer than the dry bulb. Relative humidity is computed from the
ambient temperature as shown by the dry-bulb thermometer and the difference in temperatures as
shown by the wet-bulb and dry-bulb thermometers. Relative humidity can also be determined by
locating the intersection of the wet- and dry-bulb temperatures on a psychrometric chart. One device
that uses the wet/dry bulb method is the sling psychrometer, where the thermometers are attached to a
handle or length of rope and spun around in the air for a few minutes.
Example Question:
Use the thermometers to the left, and the
psychrometric chart to the right to determine the
relative humidity of the air according to the dry
and wet bulb thermometer readings.
A. 66% B. 69% C. 79% D. 85%

Freshwater versus Saltwater:
DENSITY
FREEZING POINT
CONDUCTIVITY
NATURAL RESOURCES
IMPORTANCE TO
WATER CYCLE
USED FOR DRINKING
OR WATERING CROPS
Salt water is denser than fresh water because of all of the dissolved salts it contains. Because
salt water is denser than fresh water, objects float more easily in salt water than fresh water.
The dissolved salts in salt water cause the freezing point of salt water to be lower than the
freezing point of fresh water.
When sodium chloride dissolves in water, it forms charged particles called ions. The ions in
salt water make it a good conductor of electricity.
People get seafood from the oceans and use oceans for transportation and recreation.
When seawater evaporates, it leaves behind salts and other particles dissolved in it. Through
evaporation, fresh water returns to the atmosphere where it can form clouds and fall back to
the Earth as precipitation.
Unlike fresh water, salt water can not be used to drink or to water crops. Because most of the
water on Earth is not drinkable, people must keep fresh water clean and use it wisely.
1. Which requires a lower temperature to freeze, fresh or salt water?
2. Which type of water is more dense, fresh or salt water? What happens when freshwater rivers
enter saltwater oceans?
3. What can be done to freshwater to make it a better conductor of electricity?
4. How are fresh and saltwater used as natural resources?
PH 16-4 & 16-5: Clouds & Precipitation {Pages 547-554}

Clouds: Clouds form as air masses rise, expand, and cool causing water vapor to condense into water
droplets. Water droplets are extremely small. It takes about a million water droplets to form a rain
drop.
Cloudman.com Link
http://cloudman.com/
Basic Cloud Types
Cumulus
Stratus
Cumulonimbus
Nimbostratus
Cirrus
---------Click on the poster below to access information on basic cloud types.
Meteorological Causes of Precipitation Link
http://www.s-cool.co.uk/gcse/geography/weather-and-climate/rainfall-types.html
Formation of Precipitation Animations Link
http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130/notes/chapter7/51_Sleet/A_51.swf
Rain
Sleet
Snow
Types of Precipitation
Hail
Freezing Rain
----------
Click on the picture below to access information on clouds & precipitation.
Sample Questions:
1. Which types of low clouds are responsible for producing misty rain or drizzle?
2. Which type of cloud produces rain showers or snow storms of long duration?
3. Which types of clouds are normally produced by rapidly moving cold fronts and bring severe weather in
the form of thunderstorms? This cloud type is the only one capable of producing hail?
4. How is sleet different that freezing rain? Isn’t sleet frozen rain drops?
5. What kind of weather generally occurs when cirrus and cumulus clouds are in the sky?
CHAPTER # 17: WEATHER PATTERNS
PH 17-1: Air Masses and Weather Fronts {Pages 563-565}




What are weather fronts?
What is the weather usually like along a weather front?
How do the temperatures and humidity levels change after the passing of cold and warm fronts?
How are warm fronts, cold fronts, occluded fronts, and stationary fronts different?
http://www.classzone.com/books/earth_science/terc/content/visualizations/es2002/es2002page01.cfm?ch
apter_no=visualization
http://www.stevemcentee.com/animation3.html
PH 17-2: Storms {Pages 567-575}




How do tornadoes form?
How do global winds influence the movements of these air masses?
What kind of weather in California is associated with winds that come from the northwest?
Why are tornadoes most come in Tornado Alley, the central region of the U.S.? {Hint: Refer to your
Modeling a Vortex lab handouts.}
Tornado
Alley
Tornado Link
http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/earth/Atmosphere/tornado/formation.html
Tornado Animation Link
http://esminfo.prenhall.com/science/geoanimations/animations/Tornadoes.html
 How do hurricanes form?
 What causes the most damage from hurricanes?
Hurricanes Links
http://www.classzone.com/books/earth_science/terc/content/visualizations/es2008/es2008page01.cfm?ch
apter_no=visualization
http://scifiles.larc.nasa.gov/kids/Problem_Board/problems/weather/hurricanebasics.swf
PH 17-3: Floods {Pages 579-582}
 What is a flash flood?
 What leads to most flash floods?
 What is the first rule of flood safety?
Flash Flood Animation Link
http://www.uky.edu/AS/Geology/howell/goodies/elearning/module12swf.swf
PH 17-4: Predicting the Weather {Pages 583-582}





What is El Nino?
What types of weather changes can be caused by El Nino?
What kinds of weather patterns do low pressure systems create?
What kinds of weather patterns do high pressure systems create?
What name is given to the lines on a weather map that connect areas with the same barometric
pressure?
 What type of weather accompanies cold fronts?
Weather Map Link
http://www.as.ysu.edu/~wbuckler/Weather/Exercises/Surface_Weather_Maps/surface_weather_maps.ht
ml
Weather Station Models
Decoding the Surface Weather Station Model {click on “Example Numbers” 1-9}
http://itg1.meteor.wisc.edu/wxwise/AckermanKnox/chap1/decoding_surface.html
 What does each number and symbol of a weather station model indicate?
AIR PRESSURE
Sea-level pressure is
plotted in tenths of
millibars (mb), with the
leading 10 or 9 omitted.
For reference, 1013 mb
is equivalent to 29.92
inches of mercury.
Below are some sample
conversions between
plotted and complete
sea-level pressure
values:
410: 1041.0 mb
103: 1010.3 mb
987: 998.7 mb
872: 987.2 mb
Sample Question:
Which of the following statements correctly describes the weather symbolized by the station model below?
A.
B.
C.
D.
39ºF - clear skies – fog - southeast wind (25 knots) – air pressure at 1086.5 mb & rising
-10ºF – partly cloudy skies – snow - northwest wind (2.5 knots) – air pressure at 865 mb & falling
39ºF - overcast skies, northwest wind (25 knots) – air pressure at 865 mb & continuously falling
38ºF with overcast skies, drizzle, southeast wind (20 knots) – air pressure steady at 1086.5 mb