Unit 2: Early River Civilizations
Reading Two: Egypt
Source: World History: A Story of Progress. Ed. Terry L. Smart and Allan O. Kownslar. Holt,
Rinehart and Winston; New York, 1987. P36-57.
While Sumerian civilization was emerging in the
Tigris-Euphrates River valley, similar
developments occurred elsewhere-in the Nile
River valley of Egypt. In this chapter you will
learn how Egyptian civilization, its people united
by the Nile River and protected by a barren
desert, remained practically undisturbed by
outsiders for hundreds of years. The geography
of the Nile River valley differed from that of
Sumer and, as you will see, helped give Egyptian
civilization its own, unique character.
Prehistoric Egypt
The Egyptians developed a great civilization
along the Nile River in the northeastern part of
Africa. Although historians now believe that this
civilization emerged after the Sumerians, both
arose from a similar Neolithic background.
During the Paleolithic Period when hunters
roamed the northern part of Africa, it was
covered with broad, rolling grasslands and many
rivers. Gradually the climate became drier as the
earth warmed after the most recent Ice Age, and the region became a desert. People were forced to move
to places with a greater water supply. Some of them moved to the banks of the Nile and settled in the low
desert that bordered the swamps of the Nile Valley. Ancient houses and cemeteries found in that area
indicate that over a period of 4,000 years the swamps, once inhabited by crocodiles and hippopotamuses,
were cleared and settled.
As the swamps were cleared, Neolithic people began to farm the fertile land. Historians think that the
first crops in Egypt were planted about 7,000 years ago. The prehistoric Egyptians learned to domesticate
wild animals. They made tools from wood and stone, fashioned pottery on a rotating wheel, and worked
with copper. They even learned to grow flax and weave the fibers into linen for clothing. Some
prehistoric Egyptians engaged in limited trade. Popular trade items included materials used in the making
of perfumes and goods made from copper and ivory.
These early farmers formed villages along the Nile and built their homes of reeds and mud from the
river banks. Remains of their cemeteries show that the Nile farmers buried their dead in shallow graves.
The bodies were placed on their sides and the hot, dry sands of the desert often preserved the bodies for
thousands of years. Pots, weapons, and food were usually found placed beside the deceased, suggesting
that the prehistoric Egyptians believed in an afterlife.
The Old Kingdom
Historians divide Egyptian history into three main periods: the Old Kingdom (2850 B.C. to 2200 B.C.),
the Middle Kingdom (2050 B.C. to 1792 B.C.), and the New Kingdom (1570 B.C. to 1090 B.C.). As you
will see, these dates are only approximations because of the kinds of records the Egyptians kept.
Historians do not have enough information to say exactly when each period began or to know precisely
how long it lasted.
The Uniting of Egypt
Before the beginning of the Old Kingdom, Egypt was divided into
two separate kingdoms called Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt. (See map)
A king of Upper Egypt named Menes (MEE-neez) conquered Lower
Egypt and united the two into one kingdom. He founded his capital city at
Memphis, located near modern Cairo (KIE-roe). This unification marked
the beginning of the Old Kingdom, a time in which Egypt remained
united politically and Egyptian civilization reached its height. Power
passed smoothly from one member of the Menes family to another. The
clear explanation to why the Old Kingdom was able to develop this period
of political stability is found in all the advantages offered by its
geography. Especially the gifts of the Nile river.
This palette is believed to
depict Pharaoh Menes
conquering the Pharaoh of
Lower Egypt.
A Blessed Environment
The Nile River has two main sources: the high lands of
Ethiopia, and Lake Victoria, in present-day Uganda. It
flows northward for about 4,200 miles (6,700 kilometers)
until it reaches the Mediterranean Sea. In its course, the
river cuts through the Nile Valley which is about 12 miles
wide (19 kilometers) and 880 miles (1,400 kilometers)
long. The valley is bordered on both sides by high rock
walls, beyond which is desert. Both the rock walls and the
desert form a natural barrier that helped protect the people
of the Nile Valley from raids by desert nomads. This
helped protect the kingdom and left it in peace.
As it nears the Mediterranean, the Nile River branches
into many smaller rivers and flows through the Nile Delta.
This is a broad, fan-shaped plain of fertile soil deposited
by the river as it empties into the sea. Owing to the
richness of the soil ,the Nile Delta has been heavily
populated throughout Egypt’s history.
To the east of the delta lies the Isthmus of Suez, bordered
on the north by the Mediterranean Sea and on the south by
the Red Sea. This narrow neck of land connects the
The Nile River is one of the few rivers in the world
that flows north. Thus Lower Egypt was downriver
and in the north, whereas Upper Egypt was up river
in the South
northeastern part of Africa with Asia. The Isthmus of Suez is the only break in the natural barriers formed
by the rock walls of the Nile Valley. It linked Egypt with the rest of the ancient Middle East and provided
a route to and from Egypt for trade. But, since Egypt’s neighbors during the Old Kingdom were
relatively small and undeveloped, it left them safe from invasion.
The Greek historian Herodotus
called Egypt the “gift of the Nile”
because when the river floods each
summer, it deposits a layer of rich soil
on the land. From very early times,
Egyptian farmers relied heavily on the
yearly floods. After harvesting their
crops in March and April, the farmers
waited for the great river to overflow
its banks and deposit the rich black
soil carried by its waters. After that,
they planted their next crop. Farmers
were able to plant as many as three
crops a year in this very fertile soil.
Each new generation was able to reuse
the same land because the Nile
renewed the soil year after year.
Egyptian farmers used complex irrigation much like in Mesopotamia. Dikes were built all around a field,
and canals were used to lead the water from the Nile. Then the dikes were opened in such a way that the
water irrigated one field at a time. Thus, a wide variety of crops were able to be grown in the fertile soil
of the delta and on the farmlands bordering the Nile River. There were pastures for cattle, goats, and
sheep. Fish were plentiful, and birds were hunted in the tall reeds that grew along the river banks. This
kept Egypt well fed with less labor, freeing up people for other tasks. In fact, the Egyptians had more of a
problem in finding work for their growing population.
Beyond food, the Nile valley provided other resources. The reeds that grew along the river provided
material for baskets, mats, sandals, and boats. Most important of all, the Egyptians invented a method of
splitting and pressing the river reeds together to make a substance similar to present-day writing paper.
The plant used to make this paper like material was called papyrus (puh PIE-rus). Papyrus also had many
other uses. Its roots could be used as a source for fuel. The fleshy tissue in the stem of the papyrus could
be used as food. The fine river mud was used for making bricks and day pots, jars, and other containers.
Blocks of limestone and sandstone, cut from the rock walls bordering the Nile, were used in building the
great pyramids and temples of ancient Egypt. Copper was mined in the eastern desert and the Sinai
Peninsula, and gold came from the nearby desert and from Nubia, a region to the south.
The Nile River gave the Egyptians another advantage as well. The northward flow of the river carried
boats toward the Mediterranean. On the return trip a ship’s sails could catch the prevailing winds that
blow in a southerly direction across Egypt most of the time. River travel took precedence over all other
means of transportation in Egypt. It encouraged a lively river trade that helped unify the country’s
economy and also fostered political unity: a ruler who could control river transportation could control the
country. In this way, Pharaoh’s, like Menes, led a centralized government. Unlike in Sumer, all of
Egypt’s cities were united together.
Unlike the world of Mesopotamia, the Egyptians were blessed with an ideal environment. Their greatest
challenge was in how to keep nature and society working in harmony. To do this, the Old Kingdom
established a complex theocracy that they believed would make things work perfectly, forever.
Government and Religion in the Old Kingdom
As in Sumerian society, religious beliefs formed the basis of authority for the rulers. In Egypt there
was no separation of church and state. Egyptian rulers, known as Pharaohs, were religious leaders as well
as political leaders. To understand how the Pharaoh ruled we must first understand the role of the gods.
Egyptian Gods
In ancient Egypt, religion was very complex. Each local area had its own gods and goddesses which
would mean the name and duty of a god in one city wasn’t necessarily the same in another city. The
leading gods, their name, and what they were responsible for would change depending on where the
particular ruler at the time was originally from. For example,
Egyptian gods were often seen as
Ra, (the sun god), Horus, (god of the sky) and Sobek, (the
anthropomorphic creatures, meaning they were
god of crocodiles) were all at different times considered to be
part human and part animal.
the chief god of creation.
But, in general, the Egyptian gods played the same role as in
other ancient religions. They explained various forces of
nature and how mysteries of life worked. In general, Isis was
the goddess of fertility and agriculture and her evil brother
Seth, the god of the desert. Although Sobek was the crocodile
god and god of the Nile, Hapi, was the god of the Nile flood.
Three gods that were critical to human life were Horus, the
falcon god of the sky, and later in the Old Kingdom, Re (Ray)
the sun god. Horus was considered to be the protector of
humans, whose job it was to keep the desert from taking over
Egypt. Re, as the sun, was also a protector and giver of life.
The third important god was Osiris. He was believed to be the
king of the dead and he ruled the afterlife. Pharaohs of Egypt
identified themselves as descendants, or the living
embodiment of Horus. Thus, they were a living god whose
job it was to protect all life in Egypt. When the pharaoh died,
he would become Osiris, and be responsible for all the souls in
the afterlife.
The Pharaoh
By claiming to be gods, Egypt’s rulers held even greater power over their subjects than Sumerian rulers.
As a god, the pharaoh was thought to have special powers that made it possible for him or her to rule
Egypt with perfect judgment and complete power. The pharaoh was believed to control not only people,
but also the natural world. The Egyptians believed the pharaohs’ powers were responsible for the
flooding of the Nile. Fortunately for the pharaohs, the flooding of the Nile followed a regular pattern and
was therefore a source of more praise than blame for the pharaohs.
As the descendant of the gods, a pharaoh was the supreme ruler of all Egypt and the judge of all the
people. Egyptians believed that the law, which was based on custom, encompassed the will of the gods.
Despite their position as gods, even pharaohs were considered to be subject to the law. They were also
expected to prepare themselves to be rulers and to provide for the public welfare. A pharaoh’s heir had to
study about the needs of Egypt and the management of irrigation, mining, and construction. A new
pharaoh was expected to ascend the throne ready to rule and to direct the economy.
The pharaoh owned all the land in Egypt and received taxes on
goods and services from the farmers. Pharaohs allowed the
people to use the land, but they always maintained the right to
take away any part of the land they wished. Pharaohs also
ordered mining and trading expeditions that brought more
wealth to the kingdom. During the Old Kingdom, the relative
wealth of Egypt and its natural barriers to invasion promoted a
government based on peace. Egypt had no standing army or
professional military corps. Government was based on
cooperation rather than force.
The pharaoh administered control over Egypt through civil
officials. The most important official was the vizier (vuh-ZIR),
or prime minister. Viziers emerged in Egyptian society by the
beginning of the Old Kingdom and gradually came to run
almost every part of Egyptian government when the pharaoh’s
power declined in later dynasties. Despite this, it was always
believed that the vizier spoke “with the voice of the pharaoh”.
Egyptian art always portrayed the
Pharaoh as a larger than life, idealized
person. He was after all a god on
earth.
Among his many duties, the vizier acted as judge, trying cases
and hearing appeals. He also appointed judges in the local
courts, and controlled irrigation and agriculture. He was
responsible for collecting taxes, and entertained important visitors from other lands. It was the vizier’s
duty to keep the roads and buildings in good repair. Other important government officials included the
high priest, the chief architect, the royal treasurer, the royal official who looked after the pharaoh’s
household, and the teachers of the royal children.
So, the pharaoh had complete control over the people and government of Egypt because the people
believed that as a living god, he was responsible for continued good blessings of this earth. The Nile
flood, the relative resources, peace with ones neighbors were all due to the existence of the pharaoh. But
if the pharaoh was a god, then why did they die? To understand just how powerful the pharaoh was, we
also must understand their belief in the afterlife.
Egyptian Beliefs About Death
In the Old Kingdom, the Egyptians believed in
reincarnation, or that the person would live again.
Unlike other religions that believe in reincarnation, the
person would live forever not in this kingdom, but in a
kingdom of the dead that was located west of the Nile
river where the sun set each day. This reincarnation
could only happen when the soul (the Ka) and the body
(the Ha) were reunited in the afterworld. If the Ha, or
body, was lost; then the Ka would be lost for all time.
Egyptians believed the person consisted of two part,
the body, or Ha and the soul or Ka. The Ka is seen
in this tomb painting as a white stone which the Ba
Bird would fly back and forth from this world to the
afterworld. Got it?
In the Old Kingdom, the death of a pharaoh meant that
the soul of Horus was departing this world to become the
new Osiris in the land of the dead. He would then invite
those people he had lived with to join him in the
afterlife. In this way, the people depended on the
pharaoh not only for this life, but the afterlife as well. You had to serve the pharaoh well here in order to
be allowed into the afterlife. In order to make sure the body of the pharaoh was reunited with its soul, the
Egyptians practiced two new forms of technology; mummification and pyramids.
Mummification:
Mummification, or embalming, is the process of preserving a human body by drying it out. When
moisture is removed from the body, it will not rot. Egyptians learned about mummification naturally.
The dry environment and high salt content of the desert sands were ideal conditions for natural
mummification. Egyptians probably started to develop these beliefs when Neolithic Egyptians discovered
that the bodies of their deceased did not decay when buried.
The mummification process in the Old Kingdom was not the highly developed process that it would
become in the Middle Kingdom. Commoners were most likely just placed in graves and let nature do its
best. We aren’t sure of the process that pharaohs went through, because whatever it was, it didn’t seem to
work. We have no mummies of Old Kingdom pharaohs. In fact, only seven mummies are known from
the Old Kingdom and they are all from common graves.
The Pyramids
Once the pharaoh’s body had been preserved by some method of
mummification, it was then necessary to protect it so the body and soul
would be reborn in the afterlife and then bring the other people of Egypt
with them. Egyptians built pyramids to provide a fitting burial place for
their pharaoh god-kings because they believed the pharaohs held the key to
the afterlife for all. Pyramids reflected the Egyptians’ strong conviction in
life after death. They also reflected the ability of the pharaohs of the Old
Kingdom to marshal the resources of Egypt to provide the labor and
materials for these huge monuments.
The first pyramid, which was built for the pharaoh Zoser (ZOE-sur),
was begun about 2600 B.C. The pyramid was made in steps of small,
square stones and was surrounded by beautiful white limestone temples
and other buildings used for worshiping the dead pharaoh. The building of
a pyramid was a huge public- works project taking many years to
complete. Thousands of Egyptians worked under the direction of architects
and overseers during the seasons when fewer workers were needed on the
farms. The pyramids were not built by slaves! They were built by people
who were willingly serving the pharaoh for their entrance to the afterlife.
In return, the pharaoh was able to provide work, food and resources to all
the people of Egypt in times when there was not work.
In all there were 138 pyramids built that we have discovered. All were
built on the west side of Nile which was considered the land of the dead. The greatest of the pyramids in
the Giza complex is the pyramid of Cheops. Cheops (KEE-ops), known to us as Khufu, required the
labor of 100,000 people over a twenty-year period. The structure, which contains over two million
limestone blocks fitted together with almost perfect precision without using mortar or cement, rose to a
height of 480 feet (146 meters).
Left: The first pyramid, Zoser’s Step Pyramid; Middle: The Great Pyramids at the Giza Complex; Right: The
pyramid of Amenemhet I, in all there are 138 identified pyramids in Egypt. Not all remain in as good condition as
others.
Decline of the Old Kingdom
In time the pharaohs were no longer able to control all of Egypt. At the height of the Old Kingdom,
a few officials ruled Egypt. Many were related to the pharaoh and owed their well-being to the pharaoh’s
generosity. As the number of officials increased, some left the pharaoh’s household. Many official
positions became hereditary, and people of ambition and talent were cut off from the opportunity to serve
the kingdom. Less able administrators inherited positions of power and influence and did as they pleased
while the Pharaoh spend all of his time preparing his pyramid. At the same time, the Egyptian economy
was being drained by taxation to support the ceremonies held at the pharaohs’ temples.
Between 2200 B.C. and 2050 B.C., a great struggle for power took place in Egypt as the influence of
the pharaoh waned. Priests and local nobles fought among themselves for leadership, and Egypt became a
divided country. As the central government collapsed, local nobles usually became the real rulers.
The decentralization of power had an impact on other phases of Egyptian life as well. The quality of
art produced by artisans of the pharaoh’s household declined, and the building of great monuments was
sharply curtailed.
The Middle Kingdom
Around 2130 B.C., a prince from the city of Thebes (THEEBZ), Amenemhet I (ah-meh-NEMhet),
began to restore the power of the pharaoh and the local rulers and to reunite the country. Thus began the
period known as the Middle Kingdom, which lasted from 2050 B.C. to 1792 B.C. The Middle Kingdom
was a time of peace and prosperity. Amenemhet began a process where Egyptians would spend their time
and energy expanding trade with other nations instead of spending all their resources on pyramids for the
pharaoh only. The challenge of the Middle Kingdom would be how to become wealthier and share the
success among all the people.
Changes to Government:
Beginning with Amenemhet I, and during the next two dynasties, the role of the pharaoh changed. As
before, pharaohs were considered to be gods, but they no longer had absolute power. Now they had to
share their power and wealth with the nobles and priests. The people no longer believed that a person
could achieve a place in the afterlife only through association with the pharaoh. In addition, the people no
longer feared the pharaohs, but instead considered them to be their protectors. The pharaohs themselves
seemed more concerned with the welfare of the people than they had previously. Tales of pharaohs trying
to ensure justice and good government for the people appeared in Egyptian literature of the time.
A Focus on Trade
The Egyptians traded with many parts of the ancient
world. Instead of building pyramids, Pharaohs put people
to work building ships, and sent explorers to find make
contact with neighboring civilizations. Their ships brought
timber from Phoenicia, finely worked objects from Sumer,
and carved ivories and weapons from Syria. They also
brought olive oil, honey, copper, wine, tin, lead, and iron
from other countries of the ancient Middle East. Caravans
brought back ebony, ivory, animal skins, and gold, as well
as slaves, from the lands south of Egypt. There is some
evidence that Egyptian ships sailed as far as the Aegean
Sea, the Persian Gulf, and the coast of India to trade.
Egyptian glass blowers
And of course, Egypt had to have things to trade in
exchange. So the pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom
encouraged new industry. Starting here, we have evidence to suggest that Egyptians had actual factories
that specialized in making trade goods like textiles, pottery and glass. Glassmaking may have occurred
accidentally due to the over firing of faience (fay-AHNS) ware, a fine, glazed pottery with partially fused
minerals in it. During the Middle Kingdom Egyptians made glass objects such as statuettes and jewelry.
Most trade was conducted by barter, or the exchange of one type of thing, such as timber, for another of
equal value, such as ivory. This is particularly true of trade done by peasants and poor farmers. In some
cases, rings of copper and gold were used as currency in larger dealings by merchants and traders.
Historians believe that Egyptian trade was well organized. From early times Egyptians developed
elementary methods of accounting and bookkeeping. Egyptians also originated deeds, wills, and written
contracts. A few commercial records on papyrus have been found. The Egyptian records, however, are
not as complete as the cuneiform tablets historians have analyzed from other ancient Middle Eastern
peoples.
New Social Classes
With this new found wealth, new social classes began to emerge. The most important figure in Egyptian
society was still, of course, the pharaoh. But now, sharing, in the pharaoh’s wealth and prestige were the
officials who helped administer Egypt, and the priests who advised the pharaohs and carried out
ceremonies in the temples. And now, due to new trade, merchants and artisans became important
members of Egyptian society. During the Middle Kingdom they even revolted against the priests and
nobles in order to get more rights.
The bulk of the Egyptian population, however were peasant farmers who lived in rural areas along the
banks of the Nile. The cost of supporting the royal household and building projects fell mainly on their
shoulders. It is probable that farmers were assessed one-fifth or more of their crop production each year.
There was a vast gulf between the standard of living of the nobles and that of the poor. The life of the
peasant was hard and changed little from century to century. However, it is important to note that Egypt
still did not practice slavery throughout the Middle Kingdom.
Changes in Religion.
Since religion and government still went hand in hand, there were changes to both religious beliefs and
practices. One of the most important changes of this period was in the role of priests. They were given
more religious duties and acted as intermediaries between the people and the officials of the royal
househo1d. Gradually the position of priest was passed down from father to son, and they formed a large
wealthy class whose power rivaled that of the pharaohs.
The Valley of the Kings. The door and wall structures are present day additions to
keep the tomb entrances from caving in. In Ancient Egypt the entrances would have
been completely hidden.
Another significant change in practice
was a decline in the building of stone
pyramids and an increase in
construction of rock cut chamber
tombs, which were less expensive and
less time-consuming to build. In this
way, the pharaoh was able to spend
more time administering the
government. Pyramids had never
really served their purpose in
protecting the pharaohs’ bodies
anyways. Even before the Middle
Kingdom began it is believed that
most of the pyramids had been raided
and the bodies destroyed. Instead,
pharaohs began to hide their remains
in secret tombs in the Valley of the
Kings. Although great care was taken
to decorate the inside of the tomb, the entrance and outside of the tomb were hidden. In the long term,
this didn’t completely work either, because there were thousands of people involved in the burial process
who knew the “secret” location. Pharaohs of the New Kingdom would continue the tradition of building
their tombs in the Valley of the Kings, but gave up trying to hide them and instead built elaborate
entrances.
The changes in social classes was reflected in a change in the belief about death. Whereas in the Old
Kingdom, people believed that they could participate in an afterlife through their associations with the
pharaoh. But, since classes in the Middle Kingdom were considered more equal, it was now believed that
all people would be thought of as equals in the next world. The pharaoh no longer decided if you went to
the afterlife, but was here to help all people gain access to the next life.
The process of mummification was now becoming more complex in an attempt to ensure a better afterlife.
The wealthier you were, then the more of the complicated process you could afford. The most expensive
process of mummification took about seventy days. The brain was drawn out of the skull through the
nose. The heart was left in the body because it was thought to be the center of a person’s will and
intelligence. Other organs were removed and preserved in jars that were placed in the tomb near the
mummy. Dehydrating agents were put inside the stomach area to keep the body from decaying. Finally,
the body was very carefully wrapped in hundreds of strips of linen. The mummy was then placed in a
tomb along with food and drink to nourish him or her in the afterlife. Despite these careful preparations,
most mummified bodies were damaged or destroyed by vandals or thieves. The bodies of poor people,
conversely, were buried in the hot, dry desert sand, and often were better preserved.
The Egyptian mummifiers at work. Pharaoh Ramses II as he looks today, even though he died 3200 years ago. The
Egyptians even mummified animals like this baboon so there would be a variety of animals present in the afterlife.
.
The Decline of the Middle Kingdom:
Not all of these changes turned out to be positive in the long run. The strengthening of the priests’
influence and weakening of the pharaoh’s power changed the character of Egyptian government.
Authority became decentralized. The kingdom became divided when local nobles refused to submit to the
pharaoh’s authority. Thus political unrest disunited Egypt’s unity once again. Provinces and cities
stopped working together just at the time Egypt was about to face their greatest threat. Egyptians were
about to find out that wealth attracts new neighbors, and not all neighbors are nice.
The Hyksos Invade Egypt
Although little is known about the last pharaohs of Middle Kingdom, the existence of natural barriers
may have lulled them into a false sense of security. Frontier defenses to the north became lax, due in part
to the Egyptians’ belief in their own superiority. Egyptians thought that their country was the only one
protected by the gods and, according to this way of thinking, all other peoples were subject to them.
However, not all other peoples accepted such a notion, and some made plans to conquer Egypt.
Among the invaders poised beyond Egypt’s borders and ready to take advantage of any sign of weakness
were the Hyksos (HIK-soes), which is what the ancient Egyptians called the Asians. The Hyksos invasion
was part of a wave of invasions, including those of the Hittites and Kassites in Mesopotamia, that
disrupted civilization in the Middle East. The Hyksos were a conquering people who had entered Canaan
about twenty years prior to entering Egypt. By 1730 B.C. they had traveled over the Isthmus of Suez and
through the Nile Delta.
The Hyksos quickly defeated the Egyptians and established their capital at Avaris, in the northern delta of
Egypt. The success of the Hyksos was linked to their use of lightweight chariots pulled by fast horses.
This gave the Hyksos the ability to maneuver easily and strike swiftly. The Hyksos also introduced Egypt
to bronze weaponry. Prior to this, the Egyptian army was outfitted with soft copper weapons.
The Hyksos ruled Egypt for over 100 years, and even established their own dynasties. While the
Egyptians hated these foreigners and resisted many of their ways, the Hyksos did bring some prosperity to
the country. They repaired the old roads or built new ones to connect northern Egypt with routes to Asia.
Hyksos forts and well-armed garrisons provided protection for travelers and traders who used those roads.
Gradually, however, the Hyksos allowed some Egyptian princes, such as those at Thebes, to gain local
independence. Once those princes had effectively learned to use the Hyksos’ weapons and basic military
techniques, they waged a patriotic war against the Hyksos and by 1570 B.C. drove them from Egypt.
According to ancient Egyptian legend, this rebellion began when a Hyksos pharaoh ordered a Theban
prince to “silence the bellowing of the hippopotamuses who were disturbing his sleep.” The Egyptian
prince, who had attached great significance to the animals and greatly admired them, refused to obey the
Hyksos king’s order. Unfortunately for later scholars, the Egyptians, in the course of winning the war,
destroyed most of the records of Hyksos rule.
The New Kingdom
After the Hyksos were driven out, Egypt entered another period of unity called the New Kingdom,
which lasted from about 1570 B.C. to 1090 B.C. During this time a series of strong pharaohs ruled Egypt
from the capital city of Thebes who would make sure that the mistakes of the Middle Kingdom would not
be repeated. The challenge of the New Kingdom pharaohs was in keeping themselves wealthy and
powerful for all eternity. They met this challenge by returning to absolute rule. They stripped the priests
and the nobles of some of their power and kept tight control over the government. Then they made sure
they would not be invaded again, by becoming the conquerors themselves.
The Egyptian Empire
After the Hyksos invasion, the
Egyptians realized that it was possible for
invaders to enter and occupy their land.
Pharaohs realized that they had to protect
themselves and as the first step in that
direction, they formed an army. The
Egyptians felt that safety would come only
from controlling the surrounding areas,
and thereby keeping this territory out of
the hands of rival powers. The Egyptian
army of the New Kingdom was a
professional army and much larger than
that of the Middle Kingdom. Modeled on
the Hyksos army, it used horses, chariots,
and bronze weapons.
Just as the Hittites had used the chariot
in the creation of their huge empire, the
Egyptians used it to expand their territory.
The pharaoh had a full-time army, ready to
fight at a moment’s notice. Many of the
soldiers were former prisoners of war who
could gain their freedom by serving in the
Egyptian army. With this new and stronger
army, the Egyptians conquered the whole
area along the eastern coast of the
Mediterranean area as far north as the
Taurus (TAW-rus) Mountains. They then
moved south into the region that is now the Sudan (soo-DAN).
As the Egyptians took more and more land, the empire grew rapidly. The pharaohs, however, soon
found that it was sometimes easier to conquer a land than to rule it. During the reigns of weak pharaohs,
parts of the empire revolted and tried to break away. Only the strongest pharaohs were capable of holding
the empire together.
Hatshepsut: Among the ablest and most powerful pharaohs of the Egyptian Empire were Hatshepsut
(hat-SHEP soot) and her husband, nephew, and stepson, Thutmose III (thoot-MOE-suh). Hatshepsut was
a wise and strong pharaoh who ruled jointly with Thutmose III from about 1500 B.C. to 1480 B.C.
Hatshepsut was more interested in building a secure and prosperous Egyptian society than in expanding
the empire. During Hatshepsut’s rule, Egyptian women enjoyed a better position than had women in most
other parts of the ancient world. They had full legal rights and could inherit and sell property without first
receiving the consent of their husbands.
In addition to completing huge building projects, Hatshepsut restored the temples that had been
ruined during the Hyksos occupation. The new paintings and carvings that decorated the walls of these
temples highlighted important events that took place during her rule. In this way she was able to put
Egyptians to work and demonstrate her greatness to all. She was both greatly loved, and feared.
Bust of Hatshepsut
Hatshepsut’s Burial Temple
Bust of Thutmose III
Thutmose III: After Hatshepsut’s death, Thutmose III ruled alone from 1468 B.C. to 1436 B.C.
Possibly driven by jealousy, Thutmose destroyed many of the paintings, sculptures, and buildings that
Hatshepsut had created during her rule. Thutmose and his followers even destroyed the tombs of her most
faithful servants.
Thutmose III set out to establish himself quickly as one of Egypt’s most forceful rulers. He
extended the borders of the empire as far as the Euphrates River and gained control over Palestine and
Syria that lasted into the next century. He also improved the Egyptian army and set up military posts
primarily designed to put down revolts throughout the empire. These posts served as a constant reminder
of Egyptian power and ensured that the conquered people would pay tribute to the pharaoh.
Thutmose held the children of conquered princes as hostages and educated them in Egypt. The
children were taught that the pharaohs were powerful enough both to protect conquered peoples and to
punish those who tried to revolt. It was hoped that this indoctrination would persuade the children, once
they grew up and became rulers of their own lands, not to dare oppose the regime of the pharaoh.
Thutmose was a very able ruler. He devoted much time to the ruling of his empire, and personally
judged legal cases. He also rebuilt temples with the labor of prisoners of war and decorated the temples
with chalices and urns of his own design. Wall paintings from about 1500 B.C. show foreign
sailors bringing the products of their lands to exchange for Egyptian goods, indicating that trade with
other countries also increased during the rule of Thutmose.
The Common People Lose Their Rights
The military victories of Thutmose and other pharaohs of the New Kingdom made Egypt rich and
powerful. The tribute collected from conquered peoples helped make the pharaohs and the nobles
wealthy, but unlike in the Middle Kingdom, those riches were not going to be shared with the common
people. Most of the Egyptian people lived in poverty, while the rulers grew rich and corrupt. The
freedom of the common people decreased as the pharaohs’ power increased. They had no political rights
and depended entirely on the whims of the pharaohs for justice. The whole concept of the rule of the
pharaohs had changed from one based on national unity to one based on military strength. If your town
wished to rebel, there would be a visit from the new military. And once beaten, you would be a prisoner
of war. Prisoners of war were put into a new class of people introduced in the New Kingdom – slaves!
Even the common people were not much better off than slaves. As you know, during the Old Kingdom
the pharaohs owned all property in Egypt. Until the New Kingdom, the pharaohs had allowed the people
to use the land as if it were their own. The pharaohs of the New Kingdom, however, treated large parcels
of land as their private property and forced the peasants to work the land for them. Periodically the
peasants were forced to work on huge building projects, which caused great discontent among the
Egyptian people.
Religion in the New Kingdom
Because pharaohs in the New Kingdom were most occupied with worldly problems of wealth, power and
conquest, there role in the religion changed. They were now no longer seen as gods. People now saw the
pharaoh as a mortal being who ran the government and had little impact over their religious needs.
Instead, people worshipped various gods through the priests.
This change could be seen in new beliefs about access to the afterlife. Now Egyptians believed that after
they were buried their spirits would be sent to a great hall where their sins were judged. There they
pleaded before forty-two gods for eternal life. The dead had to declare virtue, know the secret names of
the gods, and be able to cast magic spells that would drive off dangerous snakes and crocodiles. Spells
were necessary to survive the dangers of a journey across a lake of fire, and to keep the dead from
forgetting their own names. The Egyptians believed that if a dead person were to forget his or her name,
that individual would die again. If the dead surmounted all these trials, they would arrive at a place called
the “Field of Rushes,” where their lives would remain pleasant forever. These Egyptian beliefs about
death arid eternal life, developed over thousands of years, were finally recorded about 1500 B.C. in the
Book of the Dead. Divisions in the social classes was also reflected in this new change. The wealthier
you were and the more offerings you gave to priests, then the more you could purchase the knowledge
and secrets you would need to pass the tests.
Akhenaton
Amenhotep IV was a pharaoh who
tried to reform Egypt by turning
everything on its head. He rejected
the greed and power that came with
conquest. He had little interest in
saving the empire, some of whose
subjects were transferring their
loyalty to the Hittites. Instead, he
wanted to take Egypt back to its own
traditions when the pharaoh was seen
as the only key to an
afterlife. In order to do this,
Amenhotep IV under took a
reformation of Egyptian religion.
During the New Kingdom one of
the most important gods was Aton
A Pharaoh family portrait. Akhenaton, wife Nefertiti , and their three
daughters are seen under the rays of the sun god , Aton. For the first time
(AH-ton), the sun god. Around 1375
in Egyptian art, the Pharaoh was seen as human and emotional.
B.C. Amenhotep IV elevated the
ancient cult of the sun god to a
position approaching monotheism. His premise was that Aton was the only true god—not just the most
important. To demonstrate his conviction, Amenhotep changed his own name to Akhenaton (ak-kehNAH-ton), which means “he who serves the Aton.” Akhenaton believed he was the son of Aton and, as
such, allowed the god to be worshiped only through himself—not through the priests. Therefore, the
priests’ importance in society diminished, and the wealth they received in the form of gifts went to
Akhenaton. The priests of the older religion were angered by Akhenaton’s power over the Egyptian
people. To make matters worse, Akhenaton placed his followers in high positions that previously had
been held by priests. Also, the wealth that formerly went both to the priests of Amon and for building
temples to the former gods went instead to the pharaoh’s new temples for Aton.
In honor of Aton, the pharaoh built a new capital city named Armana. Here Akhenaton set about
changing the whole culture of Egypt. Instead of focusing on war, conquest and building projects, he set
about creating a revival in art. There scholars have discovered pictures of the pharaoh, his wife, Queen
Nefertiti (neh-fer-TEE-tee), and their children. In contrast to the traditional, static representation of
pharaohs in earlier art, the royal family here is depicted in various aspects of everyday life, and -their
facial expressions reveal feelings and emotions. This is the only era in Egyptian art where you would find
artists painting landscapes.
Thus, while Akhenaton and Queen Nefertiti were focusing their attention on founding a new religion
and culture, the Egyptian Empire continued to decline. The Egyptian common people were unhappy about
the pharaoh’s new religion because it offered them little hope of a life in the next world. Foreign princes
were challenging the pharaoh’s strength and trying to gain control. Rebellions against Egyptian rule had
already succeeded in Canaan, and it seemed as if the empire was on the brink of collapse. Akhenaton’s
death, and in fact whole life, remains a mystery because when he died most of his records were destroyed.
Tutankhamun Succeeds Akhenaton
The priests of Amon and the other gods maintained some control over the people by continually
stirring up discontent over the new religion. In 1361 B.C. the young prince Tutankhamun (too-tahngKAHM-un) succeeded Akhenaton as pharaoh at the age of 9. Pressured by the priests, he restored the old
Egyptian religion and returned the capital to Thebes.
However, Tutankhamun was unable to stop Egypt’s decline and the empire continued to fall into
disorder. The situation improved somewhat under the direction of the army general who succeeded
Tutankhamun. What followed, however, was the final stages of the Egyptian Empire.
The Decline of the New Kingdom
The most famous pharaoh of this kingdom was
Ramses II (RAM-seez), who ruled from 1279
B.C. to 1212 B.C. Known as “Ramses the Great”
he ruled for 67 years and tried to return Egypt to
its former glory. He managed to collect enough
taxes to construct huge buildings and also built a
new capital at Tanis (TAY-nus), in the Nile
Delta. This city was called Ramses. One of
Ramses II’s battles against the Hittites concluded
with the first recorded peace treaty in history.
This battle was followed by years of peace, even
though nomadic tribes called Sea Peoples
continued to challenge Egypt’s rule in Canaan.
Ramses II was the last pharaoh to win a major
victory over Egypt’s rivals. After his reign, Egypt was no longer able to fight off invaders. Disorder
spread rapidly, and Egypt was conquered repeatedly. Invaders, from Libya to the west, controlled the
government for a while. These were followed by Ethiopians who invaded Egypt from the south, and the
Assyrians who approached from the northeast in 670 B.C. Although the latter conquered the entire
country, they were defeated by the Persians around 525 B.C. At this point Egypt’s history as an
independent state in the ancient world ended. The Persians ruled Egypt until they, in turn, were defeated
by Alexander the Great in 332 B.C. It was not until the twentieth century, after falling under the
domination of the Romans, Turks, French, and British, that Egypt again became independent.
Art and Technology
From simple beginnings as a group of agricultural villages, Egyptian society reached a high level of
artistic and technological achievement.
Egyptian Writing
Many visitors to Egypt are struck with the beauty of ancient inscriptions found on walls and tombs.
This form of writing is called hieroglyphics (hie ur-uh-GLIF-ilcs), a name that comes from the Greek
word meaning “sacred carving,” and dates back to about 3000 B.C. Hieroglyphics were composed of
more than 600 signs, which were carved into stone monuments.
They were used mainly by priests for religious purposes. The
Egyptians did not develop a true alphabet as the Phoenicians later
did, but they gradually made hieroglyphic writing more simple. One
of these simpler writing systems was a type of handwriting called
hieratic (hie-uh-RAT-ik) While hieroglyphics were carved in stone,
hieratic writing was written on papyrus with a brush dipped in ink.
Much of our present knowledge about Egypt is based on the
deciphering of hieroglyphics, in the late eighteenth century a stone
was discovered near the mouth of the Nile River. Named for the city
near where it was found, the Rosetta stone contained three different
types of writing: Greek, which was known, hieroglyphics and a later
form of Egyptian writing, which were not known. The stone is
inscribed with a decree honoring a king’s restoration of a temple. A
French scholar, Jean François Champollion, used the Greek to
interpret the other two writings, and published his findings in 1822.
Scribes
The tremendous amount of Egyptian writing that even today remains intact was the work of scribes,
or official writers. Scribes, who were among the most important members of Egyptian society, attended a
special school for twelve years. Anyone who studied at this school learned to read and write and was
taught the literature and history of Egypt. Scribes also had to know mathematics, bookkeeping,
mechanics, surveying, and law. They wrote their records on a roll of papyrus which had fifty times the
writing surface of a cuneiform clay tablet. The convenience of writing on papyrus, which could be carried
easily, helped spread Egyptian writing to Phoenicia. It later led to the development of the Phoenician
alphabet.
Egyptian Architecture
Surrounded as they were by cliffs, Egyptians of the Old Kingdom made
important advances in building with stone. To build temples, palaces, and
pyramids, they learned to move huge blocks of stone weighing several tons
from one place to another. They cut the stones into the proper shapes with
copper saws and then fitted them tightly into place.
The Egyptians used a special unit of measure called the royal cubit
(KYOO-but), which measured about 21 inches (53 centimeters), or about the
length of an Egyptian’s arm from fingertips to elbow. They also used the width
of a hand (without the thumb) and the width of a single finger as units of
measure. With this simple measuring system, the Egyptians were able to build
pyramids having bases the size of eleven football fields!
As the Egyptians became more skilled, they built other kinds of monuments. Obelisks (AHB uhlisks), or tall, pointed stone columns shaped like huge needles, were erected for Thutmose III, who began
his rule in 1480 B.C., during the New Kingdom. Originally built at Heliopolis (hee-lee AHP-uh-lus), they
were later removed and now stand in Istanbul, London, New York, and Rome.
Egyptian Art
Like the pyramids, Egyptian art was also a reflection of Egyptian culture. Much of it appeared in
tombs. During the Old Kingdom, skilled artisans and artists worked with fine materials and deliberate
care. Pictures on the walls of tombs displayed a colorful view of life in Egypt. They were painted to
provide the dead with reminders of their life on earth. Inscriptions and drawings on the walls of officials’
tombs depicted their service to the ruler. A king might be shown defeating his enemies. Farmers were
shown working in their fields.
Sculpture was a highly developed art form. The face on the statue was realistic since food and drink
were provided for the dead. Statues of the dead were thought
to contain some part of the spirit of the deceased. Therefore,
the body appeared imposing and static to show timelessness.
Temples, such as the one at Karnak (KAHR nak), were
decorated with sculptured stone sphinxes (SFINGKS-us). A
sphinx is a figure having the head of a human being, ram, or
hawk, and the body of a lion. One of the best known Egyptian
sphinxes is the one found at Giza (GEE-zuh), which has the
head of a man and the body of a lion. Other artwork included
beautifully worked small figures of people and animals in
copper, bronze, stone, or coal.
Egyptian Science
The Egyptians were experts in astronomy and geometry. They developed an accurate calendar so
that they could predict the flooding of the Nile River. They also measured the angle of the sun’s rays at
various times in order to arrange the construction of the temples so that the rays of the sun
would fall on specific important places during special rituals.
The Egyptians based the length of their year, 365 days, on the time that passed between the
appearances of the star Sirius (SIR-ee-us), or the Dog Star. The 365 days were then divided into twelve
months of thirty days each. At the end of each year, the five days remaining were observed as holidays.
As you know, the ancient Egyptians
numbered the years by the rule of the pharaohs.
For example, they spoke of an event as occurring
in the tenth year of the rule of Hatshepsut. Using
this system of dating, historians have been able to
trace Egyptian history back to about 2700 B.C.
Egyptian geometry developed for very
practical reasons. In a land where the borders of
fields might be wiped out by the yearly floods, it
was necessary to have exact measurements in
order to restore these borders. Geometry was also
used to lay out the system of dikes and canals that
watered the fields. The pyramids and other great
monuments of the Old Kingdom were planned
Egyptian fraction symbols were components of the Eye of
and built according to complex geometrical
Horus. Which when drawn whole was also the symbol for 1.
formulas.
In contrast to their extensive knowledge of geometry, the Egyptians had a simple numbering system.
Numbers were written using signs for ones, tens, hundreds, thousands, and so forth, up to one million. For
example, the number 22 would be written 10 + 10 + 1 + 1. At least twenty-seven separate signs were
needed to write 999.
The Egyptians multiplied by doubling numbers until they reached the multiple they were looking
for. They used the same process in reverse when dividing numbers. Fractions were used, but no fraction
could be written unless it contained the number one as the numerator. Thus the fraction 3/4 would be
written 1/2 + 1/4. Although this system had limited use, the Egyptians were able to use it to solve most of
their practical problems.
Egyptian Medicine
Medical writings on papyrus provide much information about Egyptian medicine. The writings cite
important cases that were treated and also tell how a patient was examined, what treatment was
prescribed, and how the doctor thought the case would develop. Sometimes possible causes of a disease
were listed. Drawings indicate that doctors knew a great deal about human anatomy, and it is believed
that they gained this knowledge while preparing bodies for burial.
Egyptian medicine was valued throughout the ancient world. Egyptian doctors were sent to distant
lands to treat rulers and nobles, and most of the large temples had medical libraries and medical schools
for training doctors. Foreign doctors often described the drugs and methods of treating disease they
learned while studying in the Egyptian temple schools.
Egyptian Agriculture and Industry
The first people who lived in the Nile Valley caught fish and game and gathered wild fruits and
vegetables. Later, barley and wheat brought into Egypt from lands to the east were grown in the fertile
Nile Delta and the Nile Valley. These were the two most important staple crops of ancient Egypt. A staple
crop is one that is used widely and continually and, for this reason, is usually grown in large amounts.
Staple crops were grown on large estates, and production was increased by using wooden plows and hoes.
Once the use of iron was known, farm implements were made of that metal because it was more durable.
Another important aspect of Egyptian economic life was manufacturing. As early as 3000 B.C.
large numbers of people, generally working alone, were able to specialize in crafts. In later years people
began to work in groups in factories.