Notes on Human
Anatomy
for Final Exam
Dr. Beck
Life Science
Eggs are produced in the ovaries of
females.
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Females have one
ovary on each side
of their pelvis.
The ovaries are
about the size and
shape of almonds.
At birth, a female
baby’s ovaries already
contains all of its eggs.
One egg matures every month in the
ovaries of females who have reached
reproductive age…
Sperm are produced in the testes in
males…
Many sperm meet one egg…
A scanning electron microscope
shows a 3-D image of a sperm
penetrating the egg…
4-day old embryo showing cell
division…
The fertilized egg divides and cells
differentiate. By 6 weeks, the
embryo is developing eyes…
At 3 months the embryo is called a
fetus.
The fetus or growing baby is
attached to the mother’s placenta by
an umbilical cord.
The umbilical cord and placenta are
temporary organs of pregnancy.
Function of the placenta…

The function of
the placenta is to
provide a rich
network of blood
vessels that can
deliver oxygen to
the baby’s blood
flowing through
the umbilical
blood vessels.
Function of the Umbilicus…
Is to exchange oxygen
and carbon dioxide
between the mother
and fetus, since the
fetus’s lungs are
filled amniotic fluid
and not yet
functioning.
Newborn with umbilical cord
The placenta “afterbirth”
A cell is the basic unit of life.
Final Questions: read and think
carefully – you know this!
 Which
organelle liberates
energy from the food you eat for
the work of the cell?
Mitochondria!
 Make
ATP from the food you
eat. Like refining crude oil to
gasoline so your car– or your
cells– can run!
Another final question….
 Which
part of a cell contains
the genetic information that
determines the
characteristics the organism
will have?
The nucleus!
 Safely
stored inside the nuclear
membrane is the DNA that
contains the recipes for all of
the organism’s proteins.
 DNA is the genetic molecule
that contains the genes.
DNA = chromosomes

DNA tightens up into the chromosome
shape when the cell is getting ready to
divide.
What is the main function of
chloroplasts?
Chloroplasts make glucose (food) for
plants, using
 carbon dioxide from the air,
 water brought up by the roots,
 and energy from the sun.
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There are many
types of cells in
the body, but they
all have the same
DNA in the
nucleus and the
same basic
organelles.
The Cell Cycle
Mitosis = the part of the cell cycle
where the nucleus is dividing.
The Cell Cycle
Mitosis is necessary for…
 Growth
 Repair
of injuries
 Replacement of old cells
Meiosis is another form of cell
division…
 Only
to form sex cells with half
the number of chromosomes as
a normal body cell.
Sex cells are also called “gametes”:
Body
Organization
A group of similar cells
form…tissues.
Groups of different tissues working
together to perform specific
functions in the body are called
organs.
Organ Systems are groups of organs
working together to perform a
specific function in the body.
Muscles
and Bones
Ligaments…
 Joints
are kept
together with
elastic bands
of connective
tissue called
ligaments.
Ligaments of the knee joint…
Anterior Cruciate Ligament Repair
Ligaments of the spine…
A ball and socket joint …
…
is like the
joystick on a
computer.
 This type of
joint enables
your arm to
move freely.
The shoulder joint…
Tendons…
 Tendons
connect
skeletal
muscles to
bones.
Tendons in the hand…
So what is the difference between
ligaments and tendons?
 Ligaments
are bone to bone
connections.
 Tendons are muscle to bone
connections.
What kind of machine do most
bones work like?
 Bones
often
work like a type
of machine
called a lever…
 That is why we
have long
bones.
There are different kinds of levers,
and the body has some of each…
A lever…

… is
a rigid bar
that moves on a
fixed point known
as a __fulcrum_.
Muscles work in pairs…
The flexor and the extensor of a
joint… One contracts while the other
relaxes:
If a muscle bends a joint…

it is called
a flexor.
…
If a muscle straightens a joint…
…
it is called
an extensor.
Anabolic steroids …
 …lead to
problems in
the heart,
liver, kidneys ,
and can cause
high blood
pressure.
 Steroids
can also cause bones in
young people to stop growing.
 They can cause a decrease in
size of testicles in males,
leading to lower testosterone
levels and development of
female characteristics.
Do you think this is attractive?
The Heart
The flow of blood through the
heart…
Heart valves prevent blood from
flowing backwards during
contractions of the heart muscle…
Artificial heart valves…
Surgery to replace damaged or
diseased heart valves…
What are they checking?
You need blood pressure~
Blood Pressure

The force exerted
by blood on the
inside walls of a
blood vessel is
called blood
pressure.
Blood pressure is caused by:
 Tone
and
diameter of
the blood
vessels and
by the
contractions
of the heart.
Tone and diameter of blood vessels:
Blood pressure
… and by
contractions
of the heart.
Healthy and Unhealthy arteries
B allele: 16% of humans have it.
A allele: 21 % of humans have it.
O Blood allele: 63% of humans have
it.
What does a nerve cell look like?
A Nerve Cell
Vertebrae

Protective rings
of bone
surrounding the
spinal cord which
carries nerve
signals from the
brain to every cell
in the body.
The pupil and the iris
Looking through the pupil to the
retina…
Describe the pathway of how eyes
see and process an image… (p. 518)
Rod and Cone Cells
Hearing (p. 520)
Cerebrum
What does the cerebrum do?
Page 608
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Thinking and learning
Muscle movement
Senses (sight, touch, taste, smell, hearing)
memory
What does the cerebellum do?
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Muscle coordination
balance
What does the medulla do?
Medulla or brainstem
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Involuntary muscle movement
Heartbeat
respiration