₰ Most historians describe a civilization as a complex culture consisting of five key characteristics:
₰ Advanced cities
₰ Specialized workers
₰ Complex institutions
₰ Record keeping
₰ Advanced technology
₰ Advanced Cities – a city isn’t determined solely on the size of population, but through being a center of trade for a large area where merchants, farmers, and traders bring goods to the market

₰ Most historians describe a civilization as a complex culture consisting of five key characteristics:
₰ Advanced cities
₰ Specialized workers
₰ Complex institutions
₰ Record keeping
₰ Advanced technology
₰ Specialized Workers – specialization (development of skills) allowed people to become artisans, or skilled workers who make goods by hand, to create a wide range of crafts that helped cities become centers of trade

₰ Most historians describe a civilization as a complex culture consisting of five key characteristics:
₰ Advanced cities
₰ Specialized workers
₰ Complex institutions
₰ Record keeping
₰ Advanced technology
₰ Complex Institutions – long-lasting patterns of organization, or institutions, such as governments, religions, and economies, often centered around a religious building like the temple

₰ Most historians describe a civilization as a complex culture consisting of five key characteristics:
₰ Advanced cities
₰ Specialized workers
₰ Complex institutions
₰ Record keeping
₰ Advanced technology
₰ Record Keeping – government officials, priests, and merchants used scribes, professional record keepers, to keep track of laws, calendars, and payments, as well as writing about dramatic events such as wars and natural disasters

₰ Most historians describe a civilization as a complex culture consisting of five key characteristics:
₰ Advanced cities
₰ Specialized workers
₰ Complex institutions
₰ Record keeping
₰ Advanced technology
₰ Advanced Technology – new tools and techniques used to help solve problems and make life easier, such as the plow, the potters wheel, and bronze objects made during the Bronze Age, a time when people used bronze rather than copper and stone

₰ In the desert lands between the Persian Gulf and the
Mediterranean Sea, two important rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, were the location of an ancient civilization called Mesopotamia in the Fertile Crescent.
₰ Sumerians first arrived in the region around 3,500 B.C.E., where they developed a number of communities called city-states, each surrounded by fields.
₰ At the center of Sumerian city-states was the ziggurat, a religious temple and city hall run by priests (theocracy), though during times of war, military leaders were chosen . These leaders eventually became
monarchs, passing the rule onto their heirs, and creating a dynasty.
₰ As Sumer’s city-states prospered and grew, they came into contact with other peoples in the Fertile Crescent, namely the Semites
₰ Sumerians began to absorb ideas and products from neighboring cultures, leading to cultural diffusion.

₰ As the civilization grew, Sumerian society developed into social classes
₰ Priests and kings were the highest class, followed by the wealthy merchants. The majority of Sumerians were artisans and field
workers, as well as slaves (foreign prisoners and children sold into slavery could work toward freedom)
₰ Women were equal to men, except in scribe education
₰ One of the earliest works of literature in the world was the Epic of Gilgamesh
₰ Sumerians were polytheistic , believing in about 3,000 gods
₰ Sumerians developed many important technologies, such as the wheel, the sail, and the plow
₰ They were the first to use bronze, developed cuneiform, create the maps on clay tablets, develop a number system in base 60
(resulting in modern time measurements and the degrees of a circle), as well as architectural innovations, such as arches and ramps

₰ As the Sumerian city-states became more powerful, they were in near constant war with one another from 3,000 to 2,000 B.C.E. Over time, certain political centers became powerful enough to extend their control over other city-states
₰ The Semitic Akkadians from the city-state of Akkad were the first to unite many cities under the control of the king Sargon in 2350 B.C.E., and were able to spread the preserved Sumerian culture beyond the Tigris-Euphrates Valley
₰ Akkadian became the primary language of Mesopotamia, though they were soon overcome merely 200 years later by another Semitic group called the
Amorites
₰ These nomadic warriors invaded Mesopotamia in 2,000 B.C.E. and overwhelmed the Akkadians
₰ The Akkadian civilization was then divided into two parts: Assyria in the north and Babylonia in the south
₰ The Amorites established their capital at Babylon along the Euphrates River

₰ The Babylonian Empire stretched from the Persian Gulf along the
Euphrates to the Mediterranean Sea and reached its peak during the reign of Hammurabi from 1792 B.C.E. to 1750 B.C.E.
₰ Hammurabi’s Code was a single code of laws used to unify a diverse empire and was one of the first written codes of law in recorded history
₰ There were 282 specific laws carved in stone that established equal punishments for everyone and applied the principle of retaliation
₰ The Code reinforced the principle that government had a responsibility for what occurred in society
₰ Throughout its early history, the Babylonian Empire rose and fell
₰ The nomadic Indo-European Hittite people invaded Babylonia using the new technology of horse-drawn war chariots and iron weapons, though they left around 1,200 B.C.E.
₰ Babylonia then became a hot potato for numerous peoples and empires for next 600 years

₰ After Hammurabi’s reign, Babylonia fell to Assyrian invasions
₰ After the politically unstable Old and Middle Assyrian periods (2,000 –
1,200 B.C.E.), the Neo-Assyrian Empire amassed power and territory at the expense of neighboring civilizations around 900 B.C.E.
₰ Due to an aggressive program of self-defense and old territorial claims,
Assyrians defeated rival kingdoms of Babylonia and Egypt by 670 B.C.E.
₰ This large-scale expansion led to an increased income through taxes, tributes, guaranteed access to vital iron resources, and giving Assyrians control of the area’s international commerce
₰ Conquered territories were organized into an empire by placing loyal officials as the local heads of government, and promises of protection were made against possible enemy invasions
₰ Assyrians effectively maintained control of the empire by destroying cities and exiling people who refused to cooperate and pay tribute
₰ As a result of their forceful expansion, Assyrian society prized military prowess and a soldier’s skill in battle
₰ Members of the Assyrian military were divided into men fulfilling their obligated service as landholders or gifted peasants and slaves

₰ Iron-working technology and superior military organization (sieges, spies, cavalry) allowed Assyrians to create and maintain the empire
₰ They were also great builders of the time, and their capital city of
Nineveh along the Tigris River was the largest of the day
₰ Nineveh also held an impressive library, which allowed later historians a better understanding of Mesopotamian writing
₰ Assyrian kings maintained a theocratic monarchy (divinely approved rule passing from father to son) and were central to Assyrian culture
₰ Assyrian kings were expected to supervise state religion, carry out ruthless punishments for transgressors, and maintain loyalty through aggressive military campaigns
₰ Though Assyrians gained new people through violent means, native and conquered peoples were considered equals
₰ Unsurprisingly, the Assyrians fell to a combined army of their enemies (among them Chaldeans and Medes) in 620 B.C.E.
₰ The Chaldeans then adopted Babylon as their capital, and their greatest king, Nebuchadnezzar, restored Babylon to its former glory, creating the famous hanging gardens of Babylon

₰ The decline of many of the early river valley civilizations came about the same times as the spread of the Indo-European peoples
₰ Indo-Eduropeans were a seminomadic pastoral people who came from the steppe lands of the Caucasus Mountains between the Black and Caspian Seas, spreading throughout Eurasia from 1,700 to 1,200 B.C.E.
₰ Because the Indo-Europeans were skilled horsemen, their invention of the chariot allowed them to spread far in all directions
₰ Historians are able to decipher where different Indo-European tribes settled based on the languages they spoke
₰ Slavic-speakers moved north and west to the Baltic and East European regions
₰ The Germanic, Celtic, and Italic languages moved west throughout Europe
₰ Greek and Persian-speakers moved south
₰ For those Indo-Europeans who moved east to North India and Iran, the
Sanskrit language was established

₰ The earliest Iranian people living in the harsh, arid geography of the Middle
East were Indo-Europeans tribes named the Medians and the Persians
₰ Settling along the Persian Gulf coast, the rise of the Persian Empire began under the leadership of Cyrus the Great in 550 B.C.E. when Persian forces conquered the Chaldeans (New Babylonians) and other neighboring kingdoms
₰ At the height of its power, the Persian Empire expanded from the Indus River in the east, Anatolia in the west, and Egypt in the south, spanning 2,500 miles
₰ Though a military genius, Cyrus the Great was best-known for his kind governance of conquered people. Instead of enslaving and prohibiting local beliefs and customs, he honored them
₰ When Cyrus died in battle in 530 B.C.E., his ill-fated son Cambyses ruled for only eight years before being deposed by Darius, a former member of the
Ten Thousand Immortals who expanded the empire in all directions
₰ Though Darius was a skilled warrior, the only failed expansion he or his son experienced was at the hands of the Greeks

₰ Despite his military prowess, Darius was an incredible governmental administrator who organized his bureaucratic government into departments
₰ Darius divided the kingdom into 20 provinces, which were governed by their own people with their own religion and their own laws under a Persian satrap
₰ In addition to his government, Darius further solidified control over his vast empire by creating the Royal Road and establishing a standard monetary coin to improve trading throughout the empire, promoting cultural diversity
₰ In order to make sense of a chaotic and unstable world, a Persian religious prophet named Zoroaster began to spread his religious beliefs around 600
B.C.E.
₰ Zoroastrianism developed ideas of good versus evil, heaven, hell, and a final judgment day based on lifetime decisions (similar to concepts in Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam)
₰ The Persian Empire helped preserve diverse cultures and ideas for later generations and lasted for two hundred years

₰ Another major river valley civilization was established in an area west of the Fertile Crescent in North Africa along the northward flowing Nile River called Egypt
₰ Upper Egypt – southern stretch of the Nile River from Memphis to the
First Cataract (just north of the Tropic of Cancer)
₰ Lower Egypt – northern delta of the Nile River from Cairo to the
Mediterranean Sea
₰ The Nile River was essential for Egyptian way of life
₰ Promoted transportation and trade between Upper and Lower Egypt
₰ Helped unify Egypt’s villages
₰ Provided a yearly fertilization cycle of the region (flood, plant, harvest)
₰ Sheltered Egyptians from outside contact by the desert
₰ By 3,200 B.C.E., Egyptians began trading caravan goods with the
Mesopotamians , and by 2,000 B.C.E., they traded with Nubia and Kush to the south along the Nile
₰ Cultural diffusion occurred mostly between the Egyptians and migrating peoples from other parts of Africa, and to a lesser degree, from the Fertile Crescent

₰ By 3,200 B.C.E., Egypt was under the rule of two separate kingdoms, Upper and Lower Egypt
₰ According to legend, an Upper Egyptian king named Menes joined the two regions around 3,100 B.C.E. and established the first
Egyptian dynasty
₰ Before 2660 B.C.E. and the establishment of the Old Kingdom under the Third Dynasty’s rule, little is known
₰ Unlike Mesopotamia, Egyptian leaders weren’t representatives to the gods, they were gods known as pharaohs
₰ In Egyptian’s theocracy, the pharaoh was responsible for the kingdom’s well-being and continued ruling even after death
₰ The great age of pyramid building occurred during the Old Kingdom
₰ The pyramids were rectangular prisms built as burial places for the pharaohs
₰ These pyramids show Egyptians had developed enough economic strength to support massive public works projects, as well as leadership and government organization to carry them out

₰ Like their Mesopotamian neighbors, Egyptians were polytheistic
₰ Because Egyptians believed in an afterlife, they built great tombs and preserved a dead person’s body by mummification so they could have use of it in the afterlife
₰ They were also buried with other objects, such as food, clothing, and jewelry, that the dead would need, as well as the Book of the Dead
₰ Egyptians had a similar societal structure as the Mesopotamians
₰ The pharaoh and royal family were at the top, followed by other upper class members (wealthy landowners, government officials, priests, and army commanders), with merchants and artisans coming after them, and ending with the lowest, and largest, group of farmers and unskilled workers (and later, slaves)
₰ Unlike the Mesopotamians, Egyptians had social mobility, or and ability to move between classes through marriage and success in their jobs
₰ Women were also considered equals to men in Egyptian society

₰ Egyptian scribes created an advanced flexible system of pictographic writing called hieroglyphics, which could be used almost like letters in an alphabet
₰ They first wrote on clay tablets, but later invented papyrus, a paperlike material created from reeds near the Nile River
₰ Egyptians developed many practical inventions, including an early form of geometry for architects and farmers
₰ They were first to use stone columns in architecture, create an accurate calendar
(only six hours difference from solar year), and scientific medical knowledge
₰ The weakening pharaohs’ power ended the Old Kingdom around 2,180 B.C.E.
₰ The Middle Kingdom began a hundred years later, resulting in improved trade and transportation by connecting the Nile and Red Sea to the east, but it soon came to an end when the chariot-riding Hyksos invaded in 1,640 B.C.E. (about the same time as nomadic invaders attacked Mesopotamia and the Indus River
Valley farther to the east)

₰ After the invading Hyksos were expelled by an Upper Egyptian prince, the New Kingdom was established in 1,532 B.C.E.
₰ Lasting only until 1,070 B.C.E., the New Kingdom was an aggressive period of growth, expanding from Nubia in the south along the
Mediterranean coast in the north, up to Syria-Palestine
₰ Queen Hatshepsut spent most of her reign encouraging trade rather than war
₰ Egyptians traveled extensively, resulting in a period of innovation
(such as the potter’s wheel, war chariot, and weaver’s loom) and gained access to numerous resources
₰ Another famous ruler of the time was Akhenaten with his wife
Nefertiti, who attempted to establish the god Aten as the supreme deity of Egypt
₰ His failure to reform Egyptian culture resulted in an aggressive return to the old ways and a defilement of his tomb and others of the time (the exception being the boy-king Tutankhamen’s burial chamber which remained undisturbed)

₰ The greatest king of the age was Ramses II (Ramses the Great) who developed widespread construction of projects throughout Egypt, including the Karnak Amon temple and the hidden burial chambers at the Valley of the Kings
₰ Though many impressive projects were built during this time, none were as skillfully constructed as those of the Old Kingdom
₰ When Egypt expanded north, a war erupted between Ramses
II and the Mesopotamian invaders the Hittites over economic resources found at an international trading crossroads
₰ The Battle of Kadesh in 1,285 B.C.E. forced the Egyptian and
Hittite Empires into an alliance
₰ Despite the wealth and power of the New Kingdom, it began its decline in 1,200 B.C.E., falling to sea invaders from the north from the Mediterranean Sea and to the south from the
Nubian kingdom of Kush by 1,070 B.C.E.

₰ You are spies from the mighty Hittites, sent to Egypt to learn about their daily life and send a report back to your king. In your journals, create a chart with the following aspects of Egyptian culture.
₰ Remember to BRIEFLY describe each of the following so that you can write a factual and HELPFUL report for your king.
₰ Family Life
₰ Marriage
₰ Food and Cooking
₰ Cosmetics
₰ Hair
₰
₰
₰
₰
₰
Jewelry
Clothing
Housing and Furniture
Entertainment
Government

₰ While neighboring societies believed in polytheistic religions, a new nation established itself in Palestine (Canaan), centered around a
monotheistic religion known as Judaism
₰ Led by Abraham , the Hebrews migrated from the Mesopotamian city-state of Ur to Palestine around 2,000 B.C.E.
₰ Due to a severe drought, the Hebrews once again migrated in 1,500
B.C.E., to Egypt, where they remained captives under the rule of the pharaohs until they journeyed to Palestine around 1,200 B.C.E.
₰ Upon returning, the twelve Hebrew tribes united together as the kingdom of Israel to combat the neighboring Philistine city-states under three kings from 1020 to 922 B.C.E.: Saul , David , and Solomon
₰ As the most powerful of the three kings, Solomon created a trading empire due to Palestine’s crossroads geography, as well as established an extensive building program to beautify the capital city of
Jerusalem; however, due to strained finances and citizenry, Israel fell
₰ Around 922 B.C.E., the kingdom divided into two, with Israel in the north (falling to Assyrian forces by 722 B.C.E.) and Judah in the south
(falling to the Babylonian empire in 586 B.C.E.)

₰ Unlike the early civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt, little is known about the origins or decline of the Indus River Valley civilization
₰ Located along the Indus and Ganges Rivers between mountain ranges and a large desert, the Indus Valley civilization arose about 2,500
B.C.E., due partly to the seasonal monsoons
₰ Because of these natural boundaries, the Indus Valley was protected from invasion , though was able to trade with distant peoples, including Mesopotamians, through the use of the Indus River
₰ While the Egyptians were erecting pyramids, the people in the
Indus Valley were laying the bricks of India’s first cities
₰ The largest cities were Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa
₰ The Indus Valley people were remarkable city planners, creating a precise grid system with a fortified area containing all the major buildings of the city (citadel), as well as separate residential areas
₰ The Indus Valley engineers also created sophisticated plumbing and sewage systems
₰ The advanced city planning suggests the Indus people had a strong central government

₰ What little knowledge of the early Indus Valley civilization comes from the remains archaeologists find in their dig sites
₰ Based on the artifacts found, archaeologists suggest that the Indus civilization was generally stable
₰ The lack of weapons found suggests conflict was limited
₰ Clay and wooden children’s toys suggest the society could afford to produce nonessential goods
₰ Religious artifacts have been found, linking the culture of the Indus peoples to modern Hindu culture (polytheistic)
₰ Stone stamps and seals were probably used by the Indus merchants to identify their goods
₰ Sumerian objects have been found in the Indus Valley ruins and
Indus seals have been found in Sumer, indicating long-distance trade
₰ Trade began as early as 2,350 B.C.E. and continued until 2,000
B.C.E.
₰ Around 1,750 B.C.E., Indus cities began to decline
₰ Though many theories persist about the decline, none are conclusive

₰ Around the time the Hittites were invading Mesopotamia, another Indo-
European people called the Aryans migrated to the region in 1,700 B.C.E.
₰ The Vedas, a religious text, helps anthropologists piece together Aryan culture
₰ The polytheistic Aryans lived their lives according to the Vedas, which led to the establishment of Hinduism in India, and later Buddhism in East Asia
₰ Aryans developed a caste (social class) system based on skin color
₰ The four social classes began with the Brahmin, or priests, followed by the warriors, then the peasants and traders, and lastly, the shudra (laborers).
Those who were considered “unclean” were called the untouchables, and were left outside the caste system itself
₰ As the Aryans became more powerful, the individual minor kings of the territorial kingdoms began fighting with one another
₰ In the sixth century B.C.E., the Magadha kingdom controlled the region and further expanded to the south, occupying almost all of the Indian subcontinent

₰ The last eastern early civilization was found in China along the
Huang He and Yangtze Rivers roughly 1,000 years after the
Mesopotamian, Egyptian, and Indus River civilizations began
₰ Because of the surrounding mountains, plateaus, and desert, the early
Chinese civilization formed along the fertile farming area created by the Huang He and Yangtze Rivers among these natural barriers
₰ China’s relative geographic isolation prevented increased trade with other early peoples; however, invasions repeatedly occurred throughout China’s history
₰ Around 2,000 B.C.E., China’s first cities began
₰ Though unsubstantiated, legend has it that the first dynasty (Xia) established flood-control and irrigation projects
₰ About the time Mesopotamians, Egyptians, and Indus Valley peoples fell to invaders, the Shang Dynasty began (1,532 to 1,027 B.C.E.)
₰ The oldest and most important city was Anyang, built mainly of wood with massive city walls; these walls (probably taking about twelve years to build) demonstrate the ability to raise and control large forces of workers

₰ Shang society was sharply divided between nobles and peasants
₰ The nobles (professional warriors headed by a king) lived within the city, while peasants and artisans lived outside the city walls, working the land and manufacturing bronze objects and silk
₰ People’s lives were governed by their duties to their family and their king, or emperor, creating strong bonds of unity
₰ Family was central to Chinese society, and as such, respect for one’s parents was essential
₰ Elder men controlled the family’s property and made decisions, while the women were considered inferior and were expected to obey
₰ Families were closely linked to religion through the spirits of their ancestors, helping and hindering the lives of the living
₰ Through the spirits of the ancestors, Shang kings consulted their gods (polytheistic)
₰ Earliest Chinese writing comes from the oracle bones of the priests
₰ Because Chinese written and spoken languages were separate, people throughout China could learn the same writing system, though few became literate because of the vast number of characters that had to be memorized

₰ Around 1,027 B.C.E., the Zhou Dynasty overthrew the Shang dynasty, adopting much of the Shang culture
₰ Zhou leaders justified their new reign through the Mandate of Heaven, or the divine approval for royal authority
₰ This view became central to the Chinese view of government
₰ Because the Zhou Dynasty controlled lands beyond the Huang He and the
Yangtze Rivers, control over different regions was given to members of the royal family and other trusted nobles, establishing a system of feudalism
(political system in which nobles, or lords, are granted the use of lands that legally belong to the king)
₰ Though warfare was common among the feudal states, the era produced many innovations
₰ Establishment of city roads and canals, coined money, civil servants, and cast iron products, such as weapons (crossbow) and agricultural tools

₰ Despite its natural barriers, China was invaded by nomads from the north
(modern-day Mongolia) around 770 B.C.E., weakening the dynasty greatly
₰ During this chaotic time of warring feudal lords, China’s most influential scholar Confucius sought to restore social order, harmony, and good government
₰ Confucius’s teachings about reform focused not only on the social order of family with filial piety (respect for one’s parents/elders), but also of governmental order
₰ According to Confucius, education was the key for creating a working government, laying the groundwork for the creation of a bureaucracy, or a trained civil servant to run the government
₰ Another influential thinker of the time established Taoism (a philosophy based on a search of knowledge and understanding through nature)
₰ Political thinkers called legalists believed the government should use law to end civil disobedience by stressing punishment over rewards