3-1
Chapter 3
Learning and
Memory
The Learning Process
• Learning refers to a relatively permanent
change in behavior that is caused by
experience.
• Learning is an ongoing process and we can
learn:
– Vicariously by observing events that affect others,
– By incidental learning which is unintentional.
• There are several theories to explain the
learning process such as the Behavioral
Theory and the Cognitive Theory.
3-2
Behavioral Learning Theories
3-3
Behavioral Learning Theories Assume that Learning
Takes Place as the Result of Responses to External
Events.
Stimulus
Consumer
Consumer’s Black Box
Response
Behavioral Learning Theory:
3-4
Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning Occurs When a Stimulus That
Elicits a Response is Paired With Another Stimulus That
Initially Does Not Elicit a Response on It’s Own.
Unconditioned
Stimulus
(UCS)
Conditioned
Stimulus
(CS)
Conditioned
Response
(CR)
Factors That Affect the
Classical Conditioning Process
Stimulus
Generalization
“Piggybacking”
Stimulus
Discrimination
Repetition
3-5
Marketing Applications of
Behavioral Learning Principles
• Behavioral Learning
– Brand Equity
• Repetition
– Advertising Wear-Out
• Conditioned Product Association
• Stimulus Generalization
–
–
–
–
Family Branding
Product Line Extension
Licensing
Look-Alike Packaging
• Stimulus Discrimination
3-6
Behavioral Learning Theory:
Instrumental Conditioning
Instrumental Conditioning (Operant Conditioning)
Occurs as the Individual Learns to Perform Behaviors
That Produce Positive Outcomes and to Avoid Those
That Yield Negative Outcomes.
It Occurs in One of the Following Ways:
Positive Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
Punishment
Extinction
3-7
Instrumental Learning
3-8
• Reinforcement Schedules
– Fixed - Interval
– Variable - Interval
– Fixed - Ratio
– Variable - Ratio
• Applications of Instrumental Conditioning
– Reinforcement of Consumption
– Frequency Marketing - reinforces regular purchasers
by giving them prizes with values that increase along
with the amount purchased.
Cognitive Learning Theory:
3-9
Observational Learning
Is Learning Conscious Or Not?
Observational Learning Occurs When People Watch the Actions of
Others and Note the Reinforcements They Receive From Others.
Imitating the Behavior of Others is Called Modeling:
Consumer’s Attention Must Be Drawn to a Desirable Model
Consumer Must Remember What is Said and Done by Model
Consumer Must Convert This Information Into Actions
Consumer Must be Motivated to Perform These Actions
3-10
The Role of Memory in Learning
• Encoding Information for Later Retrieval
– Types of Meaning
– Personal Relevance
» Flashbulb Memories
» Narrative
• Memory Systems
– Sensory Memory
– Short-Term Memory (STM)
– Long-Term Memory (LTM)
3-11
Relationships Among Memory Systems
3-12
The Role of Memory in Learning
• Storing Information in Memory
» Activation Models of Memory
• Associative Networks
– Knowledge Structures
3-13
An Associative Network for Perfumes
3-14
The Role of Memory in Learning
• Spreading Activation
– Memory Trace for an Ad Could Be Stored
in One or More of the Following Ways:
» Brand-specific
» Ad-specific
» Brand Identification
» Product Category
» Evaluative Reactions
• Levels of Knowledge
3-15
The Role of Memory in Learning
• Retrieving Information for Purchase Decisions
–
–
–
–
Factors Influencing Retrieval
State-Dependent Retrieval
Familiarity and Recall
Salience and Recall
» Von Restorff Effect
– Pictorial Versus Verbal Cues: Is a Picture Worth a Thousand
Words?
3-16
The Role of Memory in Learning
• Factors Influencing Forgetting
– Decay
– Part-List Cueing Effect
• Products as Memory Markers
– Autobiographical Memories
– The Marketing Power of Nostalgia
» Nostalgia
» Spontaneous Recovery
– Memory and Aesthetic Preferences
• Measuring Memory for Marketing Stimuli
– Recognition Versus Recall
– The Starch Test
3-17
The Role of Memory in Learning
• Problems with Memory Measures
– Response Biases
– Memory Lapses
– Memory for Facts Versus Feelings