Introduction to
Psychology
Learning and Behavior Analysis
Learning
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Learning: the process, based on experience, that
results in a relatively consistent change in behavior
(or behavior potential).
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Learning-Performance Distinction: the difference between
what has been learned (cognitively) and what is expressed
(behaviorally)
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Some behaviorists (Skinner) only believe learning has occurred
when the behavior is observed; while others (Bandura) say that
learning can occur even without seeing it.
Learning and Stimulus
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Habituation (boredom): a decrease in behavioral
response when a stimulus is presented repeatedly.
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Used to study how animals and non-verbal humans
remember stimuli
Typically occurs with neutral or pleasant stimuli
Sensitization (on-edge): an increase in
responsiveness to a stimulus when it is presented
repeatedly.
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More likely to occur with stimuli that are irritating or painful
Behaviorism
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John Watson
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Argued that the study of private experiences (cognition,
perceptions, emotions) was NOT scientific
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Defined the chief goal of psychology was to predict and
control [observable] behavior
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Famous for the “Little Albert” experiment
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Classical conditioning of fear in an orphan infant
12-infants scenario
Behavioral Conditioning
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Classical Conditioning
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Discovered, by accident, by Ivan Pavlov
Classical conditioning is a basic form of learning that
depends on the temporal association between two stimuli
 1) The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) elicits an
unconditioned response (UR; reflex)
 2) The neutral stimulus (NS) is paired simultaneously with
the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
 3) after successful pairing or acquisition, the neutral
stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus, and elicits the
same response/reflex (now conditioned response or CR)
Behavioral Conditioning
Behavioral Conditioning

Stimulus Generalization: the automatic extension of the
conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned
stimulus.
 Little Albert & all the little fuzzy things
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Stimulus Discrimination: the organism responds different to
stimuli that are distinctly different from the conditioned stimulus.
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Extinction: when the conditioned stimulus no longer elicits the
conditioned response
 Can occur when the CR is presented frequently without the
original UCS
Behavioral Conditioning
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Applications of classical
conditioning
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Organisms can’t help it! Classical
conditioning happens all the time!
Any reflex can be conditioned!
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Food aversion
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One of the powerful forms of classical
conditioning
As few as 1 pairing can result in lifetime
behavioral changes
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Advertising
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Emotions
Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
Behaviorism
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B.F. Skinner
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Founded radical behaviorism
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Walden II
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Not only are mental or internal events not the cause of
behavior; rather these “under the skin” events are the result of
environmental stimuli (unidirectional)
A novel about a utopian society based on manipulating
environmental consequences for all behavior
Served as the father of behavior analysis
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Focus on how environmental stimuli determine behavior
(functional analysis)
Behavioral Conditioning

The Law of Effect (Thorndike): the ability or power of
a stimulus to evoke a behavioral response is
dependent on a history of reinforcement

Operant Conditioning (Skinner): learning in which
the probability of behavior is changed by it’s
consequences (reinforcement or punishment)
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Both rely on the organism first emitting a behavior
spontaneously, then receiving the consequences
Behavior Analysis
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Behavior Analysts rely on Functional Analysis
to determine the environmental contingencies
that are either perpetuating or preventing
behaviors
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The structure of the behavior matters very little; it
is the function or contingency of the behavior that
matters
Behavior Analysis
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The Three Term Contingency
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Consists of A-B-C
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Antecedent stimulus (Stimulus Control)
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The opportunity for the behavior needs to be present
Behavior
Consequence
Behavioral Conditioning
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Reinforcement: increases probability of the behavior
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Punishment: decreasing the probability of the
behavior
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Positive reinforcement: + good (reward)
Negative reinforcement: - bad (avoidance)
Positive punishment: + bad (corporal punishment)
Negative reinforcement: - good (removing pleasant)
What makes a reinforcer reinforcing? A punishment,
punishing?
Behavioral Conditioning
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What if you don’t want to use punishment?
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Differential reinforcement
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Reinforce the absence of the behavior
Reinforce a different behavior
Reinforce a physically incompatible behavior
Behavioral Conditioning

Motivating Operations: The effectiveness of a
certain consequence based on the organism’s
features at a particular moment
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Establishing Operations: makes the consequence MORE
desirable
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Hunger
Abolishing Operations: makes the consequence LESS
desirable
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Already full
Behavioral Conditioning
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Operant conditioning is most effective when the
consequence immediately follows the behavior

Consequences given later may accidentally alter the
probability of another behavior that is more proximal
to the consequence
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Dog training
Hangover v. Antibuse
Verbal humans are able to “understand” delays in
consequences – which is sometimes good (biweekly
paycheck) or bad (getting arrested for a crime)
Shaping Behavior
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Chaining
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Reinforcing small, distinct sequential parts of the
behavior until the entire behavior is achieved
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Teaching a child to brush their teeth
Successive approximation
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The organism’s behavior is reinforced as it
becomes closer and closer to the desired
behavior
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Teaching a dog to roll over
Behavioral Conditioning
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Operant Extinction: when a behavior no longer produces
predictable consequences, the behavior will return to the
previous level before conditioning
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Extinction burst
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Toddler in the grocery store
Spontaneous recovery
Fading: when the behavior analyst gradually reduces the
rate of extrinsic or artificial reinforcement

Relies on the environment having a natural, built-in contingency
for the behavior
Behavioral Conditioning

Primary Reinforcers: have reinforcing properties all on their own
 Typically biologically rooted, such as food or avoidance of pain
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Secondary (conditioned) Reinforcers: have been paired with a
primary reinforcer to elicit the same response
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Mixes classical and operant conditioning
Animal training “clicker”
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Generalized Reinforcer: have been paired with many primary
reinforcers to elicit various responses
 Token Economy
 What is an example of a generalized reinforcer?

Premack’s Principle: one behavior can be used to reinforce
another behavior
 Homework v. Video Games
Schedules of Reinforcement
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In operant conditioning, a pattern of delivering and
withholding consequences of behavior

Behaviors given partial reinforcement are much harder to
extinguish than those with continuous reinforcement
 Fixed-Ratio (i.e. every 5 behaviors)
 Fixed-Interval (i.e. every 5 minutes)
 Variable-Ratio (i.e. an average of every 10 responses –
could be at 5 responses, 7 responses, 15 responses, etc)
Variable-Ratio is the hardest to extinguish
 Variable-Interval (i.e. an average of every 10 minutes, could
be at 5 minutes, 10 minutes, 15 minutes, etc)
Observational/Social Learning

Albert Bandura
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Bobo Doll Experiment
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Simply watching another organism perform a behavior is
enough to elicit the behavior
 Can be with or without vicarious reinforcement or
vicaious punishment
 Influenced by the model’s attributes
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Authority
Similarity
Bandura believed that social learning can occur without
the learner producing the behavior (Latent Learning)
Applications of Behavioral Analysis
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Marketing & Advertising
Industrial & Organizational
Animal training
Child-rearing
Training individuals with developmental disabilities
Treatment of substance abuse
Treatment of specific phobias
And much more!