Chapter 6: Learning
Case Study: The Little Albert Experiment
Section 1: Classical Conditioning
Section 2: Operant Conditioning
Section 3: Cognitive Factors in Learning
Section 4: The PQ4R Method: Learning to Learn
Case Study: The Little Albert Experiment
The Little Albert experiment showed that emotional reactions such as fear can be taught
through classical conditioning.
The Experiment
• Eleven-month-old Albert was conditioned to fear a white rat rather than be amused by
it.
• Psychologists achieved this by pairing the rat with something that Albert would find
instinctively frightening.
The Results
• After they paired the rat with loud noises, Albert showed a fear of the rat even when
there was no noise.
• Albert’s fear spread to similar objects.
• By today’s standards, the experiment was unethical.
Section 1 at a Glance
Classical Conditioning
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Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov pioneered research into a form of learning known as
classical conditioning. In classical conditioning, one stimulus causes a response that
is usually caused by another stimulus.
Classical conditioning can help people adapt to the environment and can help
eliminate troubling fears or other behaviors.
Classical Conditioning
Main Idea
Classical conditioning is a form of learning that involves the use of a stimulus to generate a
specific response.
Reading Focus
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What are the basic principles of classical conditioning?
How might classical conditioning help people or animals adapt to the environment?
What are some applications of classical conditioning?
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Principles of Classical Conditioning
_____________________ is a type of learning that involves stimulus-response
connections.
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Classical conditioning is a simple form of learning in which one stimulus calls forth
the __________________ that is usually called forth by another
_______________________
Pavlov’s Dogs
• Russian physiologist _______________________ used dogs in his studies of classical
conditioning.
• He trained the dogs to associate the sound of a __________ with ________________
• They learned that the sound of the bell meant food was coming.
Stimulus and Response
• Unconditioned stimulus: a stimulus that causes a response that is
___________________, not learned
• Unconditioned response: caused by an unconditioned ________
• Conditioned response: a learned response to a neutral ________
• Conditioned stimulus: a previously ____________________ stimulus that causes a
conditioned response
Adapting to the Environment
Taste Aversions
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Taste aversion: ______________ response to a particular food
______-trial learning
Spontaneous Recovery
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Spontaneous recovery: Reappearance of an ______________________ conditioned
response after some time has passed
Extinction
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Extinction: Disappearance of ______________________________ when unconditioned
stimulus no longer follows conditioned stimulus
Generalization and Discrimination
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Generalization: The tendency to respond in the ________ _________ to stimuli that
have similar characteristics
Discrimination: The act of responding _____________________ to stimuli that are not
similar to each other
Applications of Classical Conditioning
Flooding and Systematic Desensitization
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In flooding, a person is ______________ to the ________________stimulus until fear
responses to that stimulus are extinguished.
With systematic desensitization, people learn ________________techniques and then,
while they are relaxed, they are __________________ exposed to the stimulus they
fear.
Counterconditioning
In counterconditioning, a __________________ stimulus is paired repeatedly with a
______________one, counteracting the fear
Current Research in Psychology
Learning from a Virtual Rat
To research learning and conditioning, psychologists often design laboratory experiments
with animals such as rats. But experiments with live animals can be costly and timeconsuming. Why not take advantage of computer technology and use a virtual rat?
• “Sniffy the Virtual Rat” allows students to design lab experiments in a virtual
environment with a virtual rat.
• To create “Sniffy,” researchers studied how real rats move and learn.
• Students can use the program to design and run classical conditioning experiments.
• A virtual rat is less costly than a real animal.
They never get tired, are always hungry, and learn more quickly, saving researchers time and
effort
Section 2 at a Glance
Operant Conditioning
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Psychologist B.F. Skinner helped pioneer research into a form of learning known as
operant conditioning, in which individuals learn from the consequences of their
actions.
Operant conditioning depends on the use of reinforcements and a schedule to execute
them.
The principles of operant conditioning can be applied to help people or animals learn
to combine a series of simple steps or actions to form complex behaviors.
Operant Conditioning
Main Idea
Operant conditioning occurs when people or animals have learned to respond to a certain
situation.
Reading Focus
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How are operant conditioning and reinforcement related?
What are the main types of reinforcers?
How do rewards and punishments shape learning?
How do schedules of reinforcement influence learning?
What are some applications of operant conditioning?
Operant Conditioning and Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, people and animals learn to _____ or ____________ certain
things because of the ______________ of what they do.
They learn from the _______________________ of their actions.
In operant conditioning, voluntary responses are _________________.
B.F. Skinner used the “Skinner box.” (rat presses bar for food)(reinforcement)
His experiment demonstrated _____________________, or the process by which a
stimulus (food) increases the chances that a preceding behavior (a rat pressing a
lever) will occur again.
Knowledge of _________________ is often all the reinforcement that people need to
learn new skills.
Types of Reinforcers
Primary and Secondary Reinforcers
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Primary reinforcers - function due to the _________________ makeup of an
organism.
Secondary reinforcers are learned by being ______________ with primary reinforcers.
_______________ is a secondary reinforcer because we have learned that it may be
exchanged for primary reinforcers like food and shelter.
Positive and Negative Reinforcers
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Positive reinforcers _______________ the frequency of a behavior.
In positive reinforcement, a person receives something he or she wants following the
behavior.
Negative reinforcers increase the frequency of a behavior when they are
____________________
In negative reinforcement, a behavior is reinforced because something unwanted
stops happening or is removed following the behavior.
Rewards and Punishments
Rewards
• Like positive reinforcement, rewards help ________________ learning.
Some psychologists, however, prefer positive reinforcement because the concept of
reinforcement can be explained without trying to guess what an organism will find rewarding
Punishments
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Punishments are quite different from negative reinforcers.
Punishments are __________________ events that __________________ the frequency
of the behavior they follow.
Punishments tend to work only when they are ________________
Most psychologists believe it is preferable to reward children for desirable behavior
than punish them for unwanted behavior.
Schedules of Reinforcement
The effectiveness of a reinforcement depends on the schedule of reinforcement—
when and _______ ____________ the reinforcement occurs.
Continuous and Partial Reinforcement
• Continuous reinforcement is the reinforcement of a behavior __________ time the
behavior occurs. (not always practical or possible)
• The alternative is partial reinforcement, which means __________ reinforced every
time the behavior occurs.
Interval Schedules
• Fixed-interval schedule: a ____________ amount of ________ must elapse between
reinforcements
• Variable-interval schedule: ______________ amounts of time go by between
reinforcements
Ratio Schedule
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Fixed-ratio schedule: reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of
__________________
Variable-ratio schedule: reinforcement occurs after a _____________ number of
responses
Extinction in Operant Conditioning
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In operant conditioning, extinction results from repeated performances of the
response without ____________________
Applications of Operant Conditioning
Shaping and Chaining
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Shaping is a way of teaching complex behaviors in which one first reinforces
______________ steps in the ______________ activity.
Chaining is ___________________ the steps of a sequence to progress toward a
____________ action.
Chaining can be forward or backward.
Chaining can be used to teach complex behavior patterns to animals.
Programmed Learning
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Programmed learning is based on shaping and chaining.
Developed by B.F. Skinner, it assumes that any task can be broken down into small
steps.
Programmed learning does not involve punishments.
Instead, it reinforces correct responses.
Section 4 at a Glance
The PQ4R Method: Learning to Learn
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The PQ4R method is a study method based on the work of educational psychologist
Francis P. Robinson. Robinson believed that students will learn more when they take
an active approach to learning.
The PQ4R method includes these six steps: preview, question, read, reflect, recite, and
review.
Preview
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Previewing a textbook means getting a general picture of the material before you start
to read.
Many textbooks are designed to encourage previewing.
Previewing helps form a cognitive map of a chapter.
Question
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You can create learning goals by writing questions about the chapter after you
preview it.
One way to write questions is to read the headings or the first sentence of each
paragraph and write a question about it.
Read
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Read the chapter with the goal of answering the questions you wrote.
As you read, jot down a few key words that will remind you of the answer.
Reflect
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Relate new information to old information.
Relate new information to events in your own life or to people you know.
Recite
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After you have answered your questions, recite the answers out loud or silently to
yourself.
You can recite alone or with a study group. Both are effective.
Review
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Learning that occurs regularly and is distributed over time is distributed learning.
Learning that occurs all at one time is massed learning, or cramming.