Español V
El 5 de marzo 2013
Capítulo 2
Realidades 3
Capítulo 2
REALIDADES 3
META:
el 5 de marzo 2013
...de Realidades 3
Día 3 el arte...
1. Los artistas
Capíutlo 2
Preparación para la prueba
Los artistas
Realidades 3
Salvador Dalí
La Guerra Civil de España
Fernando Botera
Diego Rivera
María de los Remedios Alicia Rodriga Varo y Uranga
Joan Miró
Alonso Fernandez
Lecciones
¡Goya!
Frida Kahlo
2.
Prueba- la preparación
Apellido_____________________________________
Salvador Dalí
Joan Miró
Diego Rivera
Remedios Varo
Frida Kahlo
Francisco de Goya
Fernando Botero
Alfonso fernandez
3.Tarea en repaso Tarea para hoy-
1. Realiadades 3 página 88
marzo 2013
Actividad 32 para el 5 de
2. Página 89 actividad 34
3. Página 90 actividad 36
1.Las bailarinas eran argentinas
2.El micrófono estaba en el escenario
3. El teatro
A continuar manana.......
¡ Estudien Uds.-los artistas !
Surrealism
Surrealism
is a cultural movement that began in the early 1920s, and
is best known for its visual artworks and writings.
Surrealist works feature the element of surprise, unexpected
juxtapositions and non sequitur; however, many Surrealist artists
and writers regard their work as an expression of the
philosophical movement first and foremost, with the works
being an artefact. Leader André Breton was explicit in his
assertion that Surrealism was above all a revolutionary
movement.
Surrealism developed out of the Dada activities during World
War I and the most important center of the movement was Paris.
From the 1920s onward, the movement spread around the globe,
eventually affecting the visual arts, literature, film, and music of
many countries and languages, as well as political thought and
practice, philosophy, and social theory.
Surrealismo
Retrato en "Vertumnus" (Verano) del emperador
Rodolfo II realizado por Giuseppe Arcimboldo.
Todos los frutos y flores representados en el cuadro
eran propios de la estación del verano en el siglo
XVI. Algunos surrealistas vieron en él a un
precursor.
El surrealismo (en francés: surréalisme; sur
['sobre, por encima'] más réalisme ['realismo']) es un
movimiento artístico y literario surgido en Francia a
partir del dadaísmo, en la década de los años 1920,
en torno a la personalidad del poeta André Breton.1

Origen del término
Los términos surrealismo y surrealista proceden de
Guillaume Apollinaire, quien los acuñó en 1917. En
el programa de mano que escribió para el musical
Parade (mayo de 1917) afirma que sus autores han
conseguido:
una alianza entre la pintura y la danza, entre las
artes plásticas y las miméticas, que es el heraldo
de un arte más amplio aún por venir. (...) Esta
nueva alianza (...) ha dado lugar, en Parade a
una especie de surrealismo, que considero el
punto de partida para toda una serie de
manifestaciones del Espíritu Nuevo que se está
haciendo sentir hoy y que sin duda atraerá a
nuestras mejores mentes. Podemos esperar que
provoque cambios profundos en nuestras artes
y costumbres a través de la alegría universal,
pues es sencillamente natural, después de todo,
que éstas lleven el mismo paso que el progreso
científico e industrial.
La palabra surrealista aparece en el subtítulo de
Las tetas de Tiresias (drama surrealista), en junio
de 1917, para referirse a la reproducción creativa de
un objeto, que lo transforma y enriquece. Como
escribe Apollinaire en el prefacio al drama:
Cuando el hombre quiso imitar la acción de
andar, creó la rueda, que no se parece a una
pierna. Del mismo modo ha creado,
inconscientemente, el surrealismo... Después de
todo, el escenario no se parece a la vida que
representa más que una rueda a una pierna.
Precedentes
Los surrealistas señalaron como precedentes de la
empresa surrealista a varios pensadores y artistas,
como el pensador presocrático Heráclito, el Marqués
de Sade y Charles Fourier, entre otros. En la pintura,
el precedente más notable es Hieronymus Bosch "el
Bosco", que en los siglos XV y XVI creó obras
como "El jardín de las delicias" o "El carro de heno".
El surrealismo retoma estos elementos y ofrece una
formulación sistemática de los mismos. Sin embargo
su precedente más inmediato es el dadaísmo,
corriente de la que retoma diferentes aspectos.
Primeros pasos
La primera fecha histórica del movimiento es 1916,
año en que André Breton, precursor, líder y gran
pensador del movimiento, descubre las teorías de
Sigmund Freud y Alfred Jarry, además de conocer a
Jacques Vache y a Guillaume Apollinaire. Durante
los siguientes años se da un confuso encuentro con
el dadaísmo, movimiento artístico precedido por
Tristan Tzara, en el cual se decantan las ideas de
ambos movimientos. Estos, uno inclinado hacia la
destrucción nihilista (dadá) y el otro a la
construcción romántica (surrealismo) se sirvieron
como catalizadores entre ellos durante su desarrollo.
En el año 1924 Breton escribe el primer Manifiesto
Surrealista y en este incluye lo siguiente:
Indica muy mala fe discutirnos el derecho a emplear
la palabra surrealismo, en el sentido particular que
nosotros le damos, ya que nadie puede dudar de que
esta palabra no tuvo fortuna, antes de que nosotros
nos sirviéramos de ella. Voy a definirla de una vez
para siempre:
Surrealismo: "sustantivo, masculino. Automatismo
psíquico puro, por cuyo medio se intenta expresar,
verbalmente, por escrito o de cualquier otro modo, el
funcionamiento real del pensamiento. Es un dictado
del pensamiento, sin la intervención reguladora de la
razón, ajeno a toda preocupación estética o moral."
Filosofía: "El surrealismo se basa en la creencia de
una realidad superior de ciertas formas de asociación
desdeñadas hasta la aparición del mismo, y en el
libre ejercicio del pensamiento. Tiende a destruir
definitivamente todos los restantes mecanismos
psíquicos, y a sustituirlos por la resolución de los
principales problemas de la vida.
Han hecho profesión de fe de Surrealismo Absoluto,
los siguientes señores: Aragon, Baron, Boiffard,
Breton, Carrive, Crevel, Delteil, Desnos, Eluard,
Gerard, Limbour, Malkine, Morise, Naville, Noll,
Peret, Picon, Soupault, Vitrac."
Tal fue la definición del término dada por los
propios Breton y Soupault en el primer Manifiesto
Surrealista fechado en 1924. Surgió por tanto como
un movimiento poético, en el que pintura y escultura
se conciben como consecuencias plásticas de la
poesía.
En El surrealismo y la pintura, de 1928, Breton
expone la psicología surrealista: el inconsciente es la
región del intelecto donde el ser humano no objetiva
la realidad sino que forma un todo con ella. El arte,
en esa esfera, no es representación sino
comunicación vital directa del individuo con el todo.
Esa conexión se expresa de forma privilegiada en las
casualidades significativas (azar objetivo), en las que
el deseo del individuo y el devenir ajeno a él
convergen imprevisiblemente, y en el sueño, donde
los elementos más dispares se revelan unidos por
relaciones secretas. El surrealismo propone trasladar
esas imágenes al mundo del arte por medio de una
asociación mental libre, sin la intromisión censora de
la conciencia. De ahí que elija como método el
automatismo, recogiendo en buena medida el testigo
de las prácticas mediúmnicas espiritistas, aunque
cambiando radicalmente su interpretación: lo que
habla a través del médium no son los espíritus, sino
el inconsciente.
Durante unas sesiones febriles de automatismo,
Breton y Soupault escriben Los Campos Magnéticos,
primera muestra de las posibilidades de la escritura
automática, que publican en 1921. Más adelante
Breton publica Pez soluble. Dice así el final del
séptimo cuento:
"Heme aquí, en los corredores del palacio en que
todos están dormidos. ¿Acaso el verde de la tristeza
y de la herrumbre no es la canción de las sirenas?"
Alonso fernandez
REFERENCIAS
BIOGRAFICAS
Artista visual chileno, grabador y
pintor. Inició sus estudios artísticos en
1987 en el taller de dibujo y pintura del
profesor César Osorio de la Universidad
de Chile en Santiago. Aprendió técnicas
de grabado al intaglio, litografía,
fotograbado y serigrafía en el Taller 99
de Santiago. En 1993 participó en e
lTaller Internacional del Tamarind
Institute de la Universidad de Nuevo
México (Aburquerque) Estados Unidos y
fue invitado por el Departamento de
Grabado de la Facultad de Bellas Artes
de la misma casa de estudios donde
integró el Programa de Entrenamiento
en Litografía hasta el año 1995
Las técnicas utilizadas en distintas
etapas creativas partieron por el
grabado, continuando con la pintura y
luego una combinación de ambas,
logrando efectos de gran expresividad,
como tintas sobre planchas de zinc y de
cobre, raspando, martillando y
taladrando el soporte.
Para Alfonso Fernández su búsqueda
estética lo ha conducido al dominio de
la técnica hasta configurar una
personalidad pictórica propia,
observándose una suerte de
complementación entre la gráfica del
grabado y el color del pigmento, en
busca de una armonía entre ambas. Su
oficio ha estado marcado por una
actitud rupturista e inquieta que lo
identifica con una personalidad en
extremo exigente.
En el 2000 fue invitado a trabajar con
el artista visual Sam Gilliam, en
Washington, D.C. Estados Unidos.
Durante una estadía en el Zygote Press
en Cleveland, Ohio, tomó contacto con
sus pares, contrastando tendencias.
Carlos
Enriquez
Carlos Enríquez, el controvertido artista
cubano del pincel
Por Noel Martínez
Considerado como uno de los mejores
artistas de la plástica cubana de la primera
mitad del pasado siglo, Carlos Enríquez fue
sin duda un rebelde del pincel.
Nacido el 3 de agosto de 1900 en la
localidad de Zulueta, en la antigua provincia
de Las Villas, se destacó como nadie de su
tiempo en llevar al lienzo la belleza del
cuerpo femenino, razón por la que fue
criticado y reprimido por una burguesía
conspicua e hipócrita.
Pintor de grandes cualidades naturales,
Carlos Enríquez recibió un solo
entrenamiento académico, en un breve
curso en la Pensnsylvania Academy,
regresando a Cuba en 1925 acompañado
por Alice Neel, con quien se casó.
Dos años después de retornar, dos de sus
desnudos femeninos fueron retirados de la
Exposición de Arte Nuevo bajo la acusación
de “ un realismo exagerado ”, represión que
se repite poco después y que lo empuja a
salir de nuevo hacia el extranjero.
Europa y su influencia en la obra
pictórica de Carlos Enríquez
En la búsqueda de nuevos horizontes
creativos, Carlos Enríquez viajó a España y
Francia, países donde la proximidad a las
vanguardias influyó de manera positiva en
su obra.
Acerca de esa etapa en el Viejo Continente,
el famoso novelista Alejo Carpentier
aseguró que le despojó de toda su
potencialidad de escándalo y según los
críticos fue ese el momento artístico donde
Carlos Enríquez pintó sus mejores cuadros,
entre ellos Primavera bacteriológica,
Crimen en el aire con Guardia Civil y su
Virgen del Cobre, obra donde el tópico
afrocubano asume un sincretismo religioso,
símbolo del mestizaje antillano que se
contrapone a la imagen tradicional de la
Patrona de Cuba, dado por el cristianismo.
De regreso a La Habana en 1934, la
represión vuelve a sacar su mano oscura e
impide una exposición de las obras en su
etapa europea.
El romancero guajiro de Carlos Enríquez
Radicado definitivamente en Cuba, en 1935
Carlos Enríquez comienza a definir sus
nuevas orientaciones plásticas, las que
apuntaron al mundo rural de los cubanos,
etapa que identificó como“ el romancero
guajiro ”.
Sin abandonar el erotismo y la anatomía
femenina, sus cuadros recogen las
leyendas del campo, la imagen de héroes y
bandidos, el recuerdo de los patriotas y una
fina denuncia social.
En esa época vieron la luz obras
antológicas de la plástica criolla: Rey de los
Campos de Cuba, Las bañistas de la
laguna, El rapto de las mulatas,
Campesinos felices, Dos Ríos y
Combate, imágenes que lo ubican a la
vanguardia del modernismo cubano.
Ciento un año después de su nacimiento,
ocurrido el 3 de agosto de 1 900, hoy sus
cuadros forman parte de la memoria
histórica de la nación, recordando desde las
paredes del Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes
el triste pasado de Cuba.
-
Oswaldo Guayasamín
Oswaldo Guayasamín (6 de julio de
1919 en Quito; 10 de marzo de 1999 en Baltimore)
fue un destacado pintor ecuatoriano.
Biografía
El padre de Oswaldo Guayasamín era un indígena de
ascendencia kichwa y su madre (Dolores Calero) era
mestiza. Su padre (José Miguel Guayasamín)
trabajaba como carpintero y, más tarde, como taxista
y camionero. Oswaldo fue el primero de diez hijos.
Su aptitud artística despierta a temprana edad. Antes
de los ocho años, hace caricaturas de los maestros y
compañeros de la escuela. Todas las semanas
renueva los anuncios de la tienda abierta por su
madre. También vende algunos cuadros hechos
sobre trozos de lienzo y cartón, con paisajes y
retratos de estrellas de cine, en la Plaza de la
Independencia.
A pesar de la oposición de su padre, ingresa a la
Escuela de Bellas Artes de Quito. Es la época de la
"guerra de los cuatro días", un levantamiento cívico
militar, en contra del gobierno de Arroyo del Río.
Durante una manifestación, muere su gran amigo
Manjarrés. Este acontecimiento, que más tarde
inspirará su obra "Los niños muertos", marca su
visión de la gente y de la sociedad. Continúa sus
estudios en la Escuela y en 1941 obtiene el diploma
de pintor y escultor, tras haber seguido también
estudios de arquitectura.
En 1942 expone por primera vez a la edad de 23
años en una sala particular de Quito y provoca un
escándalo. La crítica considera esta muestra como un
enfrentamiento con la exposición oficial de la
Escuela de Bellas Artes. Nelson Rockefeller ,
impresionado por la obra, compra varios cuadros y
ayuda a Guayasamín en el futuro. Entre 1942 y 1943
permanece seis meses en EEUU. Con el dinero
ganado, viaja a México, en donde conoce al maestro
Orozco, quien acepta a Guayasamín como asistente.
También entabla amistad con Pablo Neruda y un año
después viaja por diversos países de América Latina,
entre ellos Perú, Brasil, Chile, Argentina y Uruguay,
encontrando en todos ellos una sociedad indígena
oprimida, temática que, desde entonces, aparece
siempre en sus obras. En sus pinturas posteriores
figurativas trata temas sociales, actuó simplificando
las formas. Obtuvo en su juventud todos los Premios
Nacionales y fue acreedor, a los 36 años, del Gran
Premio en la III Bienal Hispanoamericana de Arte,
que se llevó a cabo en 1955 en Barcelona1 y más
tarde del Gran Premio de la Bienal de Sao Paulo.
Es elegido presidente de la Casa de la Cultura
Ecuatoriana en 1971 . Sus obras han sido expuestas
en las mejores galerías del mundo: Venezuela,
Francia, México, Cuba, Italia, España, EE. UU.,
Brasil, Colombia, Unión Soviética, China, entre
otros. En 1976 crea la Fundación Guayasamín, en
Quito, a la que dona su obra y sus colecciones de
arte, ya que concibe el arte como un patrimonio de
los pueblos.
En 1978 es nombrado miembro de la Real Academia
de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, de España, y un
año después, miembro de honor de la Academia de
Artes de Italia.
En 1982 se inaugura en el Aeropuerto de Barajas un
mural de 120 metros pintado por Guayasamín. Ese
gran mural, elaborado con acrílicos y polvo de
mármol, está dividido en dos partes: una de ellas
dedicada a España y la otra a Hispanoamérica.
El 28 de octubre de 1992 recibe el título de Doctor
Honoris Causa por parte de la Facultad de
Arquitectura y Artes de la Universidad Nacional
Pedro Henríquez Ureña (UNPHU).
Sus últimas exposiciones las inauguró
personalmente en el Museo del Palacio de
Luxemburgo, París y en el Museo Palais de Glace en
Buenos Aires, en 1995 . Logró exponer en museos
de la totalidad de las capitales de América, y muchos
países de Europa, como en San Petersburgo
(Hermitage), Moscú, Praga, Roma, Madrid,
Barcelona y Varsovia.
Realizó unas 48 exposiciones individuales y su
producción fue muy fructífera en pinturas de
caballete, murales, esculturas y monumentos. Tiene
murales en Quito (Palacios de Gobierno y
Legislativo, Universidad Central, Consejo
Provincial); Madrid (Aeropuerto de Barajas); París
(Sede de UNESCO); Sao Paulo (Parlamento
Latinoamericano en el Memorial de América
Latina); Caracas (Centro Simón Bolívar). Entre sus
monumentos se destacan "A la Patria Joven"
(Guayaquil, Ecuador); "A La Resistencia"
(Rumiñahui) en Quito.
Su obra humanista, señalada como expresionista,
refleja el dolor y la miseria que soporta la mayor
parte de la humanidad y denuncia la violencia que le
ha tocado vivir al ser humano en este monstruoso
Siglo XX marcado por las guerras mundiales, las
guerras civiles, los genocidios, los campos de
concentración, las dictaduras, las torturas.
Guayasamín fue amigo personal de importantes
personajes del mundo, y ha retratado a algunos de
ellos, como Fidel Castro y Raúl Castro, François y
Danielle Mitterrand, Gabriel García Márquez,
Rigoberta Menchú, el rey Juan Carlos de España, la
princesa Carolina de Mónaco, entre otros.
Recibió varias condecoraciones oficiales y
doctorados Honoris Causa de universidades de
América y Europa. En 1992 recibe el premio
Eugenio Espejo, máximo galardón cultural que
otorga el gobierno de Ecuador.
A partir de 1995 inició en Quito su obra más
importante, el espacio arquitectónico denominado
"La Capilla del Hombre", a la cuál le dedica todo su
esfuerzo. Falleció el 10 de marzo de 1999, en
Baltimore (Estados Unidos), aún sin ver finalizado
este proyecto.
Ese mismo año se reconoció su labor, de forma
póstuma, con: el reconocimiento como "Pintor de
Iberoamérica", el Premio Internacional José Martí.2 .
Resumen de su obra pictórica
Huacayñan:: Es la primera gran serie pictórica o
etapa. Es una palabra kichwa que significa “El
Camino del Llanto”. Es una serie de 103 cuadros
pintados después de recorrer durante 2 años por toda
Latinoamérica.
La Edad de la Ira: Esta es la segunda gran serie
pictórica o etapa. La temática fundamental de esta
serie son las guerras y la violencia, lo que el hombre
hace en contra del hombre
Mientras vivo siempre te recuerdo: es la tercera
gran serie o etapa, también conocida como “La Edad
de la Ternura”, es una serie que Guayasamín dedica
a su madre y las madres del mundo; y en cuyos
cuadros podemos apreciar colores más vivos que
reflejan el amor y la ternura entre madres e hijos, y
la inocencia de los niños.
Salvador Domingo Felipe Jacinto Dalí i
Domènech, 1st Marqués de Dalí de Pubol (May
11, 1904 – January 23, 1989), known as Salvador
Dalí (Catalan pronunciation: [səɫβəˈðo ðəˈɫi]), was a
prominent Spanish surrealist painter born in
Figueres, Spain.
Dalí was a skilled draftsman, best known for the
striking and bizarre images in his surrealist work.
His painterly skills are often attributed to the
influence of Renaissance masters.[1][2] His bestknown work, The Persistence of Memory, was
completed in 1931. Dalí's expansive artistic
repertoire included film, sculpture, and photography,
in collaboration with a range of artists in a variety of
media.
Dalí attributed his "love of everything that is gilded
and excessive, my passion for luxury and my love of
oriental clothes"[3] to a self-styled "Arab lineage",
claiming that his ancestors were descended from the
Moors.
Dalí was highly imaginative, and also enjoyed
indulging in unusual and grandiose behavior. His
eccentric manner and attention-grabbing public
actions sometimes drew more attention than his
artwork, to the dismay of those who held his work in
high esteem, and to the irritation of his critics.[4]
Early life
Salvador Domingo Felipe Jacinto Dalí i Domènech
was born on May 11, 1904, at 8:45 am GMT[5] in the
town of Figueres, in the Empordà region, close to
the French border in Catalonia, Spain.[6] Dalí's older
brother, also named Salvador (born October 12,
1901), had died of gastroenteritis nine months
earlier, on August 1, 1903. His father, Salvador Dalí
i Cusí, was a middle-class lawyer and notary[7]
whose strict disciplinary approach was tempered by
his wife, Felipa Domenech Ferrés, who encouraged
her son's artistic endeavors.[8] When he was five,
Dalí was taken to his brother's grave and told by his
parents that he was his brother's reincarnation,[9] a
concept which he came to believe.[10] Of his brother,
Dalí said, "...[we] resembled each other like two
drops of water, but we had different reflections."[11]
He "was probably a first version of myself but
conceived too much in the absolute."[11] Images of
his long-dead brother would reappear embedded in
his later works, including Portrait of My Dead
Brother (1963).
Dalí also had a sister, Ana María, who was three
years younger.[7] In 1949, she published a book
about her brother, Dalí As Seen By His Sister.[12] His
childhood friends included future FC Barcelona
footballers Sagibarba and Josep Samitier. During
holidays at the Catalan resort of Cadaqués, the trio
played football together.
Dalí attended drawing school. In 1916, Dalí also
discovered modern painting on a summer vacation
trip to Cadaqués with the family of Ramon Pichot, a
local artist who made regular trips to Paris.[7] The
next year, Dalí's father organized an exhibition of his
charcoal drawings in their family home. He had his
first public exhibition at the Municipal Theater in
Figueres in 1919.
In February 1921, Dalí's mother died of breast
cancer. Dalí was 16 years old; he later said his
mother's death "was the greatest blow I had
experienced in my life. I worshipped her... I could
not resign myself to the loss of a being on whom I
counted to make invisible the unavoidable blemishes
of my soul."[13] After her death, Dalí's father married
his deceased wife's sister. Dalí did not resent this
marriage, because he had a great love and respect for
his aunt.[7]
Madrid and Paris
Wild-eyed antics of Dalí (left) and fellow surrealist
artist Man Ray in Paris on June 16, 1934.
In 1922, Dalí moved into the Residencia de
Estudiantes (Students' Residence) in Madrid[7] and
studied at the Academia de San Fernando (School of
Fine Arts). A lean 1.72 m (5 ft. 7¾ in.) tall,[14] Dalí
already drew attention as an eccentric and dandy. He
had long hair and sideburns, coat, stockings, and
knee-breeches in the style of English aesthetes of the
late 19th century.
At the Residencia, he became close friends with
(among others) Pepín Bello, Luis Buñuel, and
Federico García Lorca. The friendship with Lorca
had a strong element of mutual passion,[15] but Dalí
rejected the poet's sexual advances.[16]
However it was his paintings, in which he
experimented with Cubism, that earned him the most
attention from his fellow students. At the time of
these early works, Dalí probably did not completely
understand the Cubist movement[according to whom?]. His
only information on Cubist art came from magazine
articles and a catalog given to him by Pichot, since
there were no Cubist artists in Madrid at the time. In
1924, the still-unknown Salvador Dalí illustrated a
book for the first time. It was a publication of the
Catalan poem Les bruixes de Llers ("The Witches of
Llers") by his friend and schoolmate, poet Carles
Fages de Climent. Dalí also experimented with
Dada, which influenced his work throughout his life.
Dalí was expelled from the Academia in 1926,
shortly before his final exams when he was accused
of starting an unrest.[17] His mastery of painting
skills was evidenced by his realistic The Basket of
Bread, painted in 1926.[18] That same year, he made
his first visit to Paris, where he met Pablo Picasso,
whom the young Dalí revered. Picasso had already
heard favorable reports about Dalí from Joan Miró.
As he developed his own style over the next few
years, Dalí made a number of works heavily
influenced by Picasso and Miró.
Some trends in Dalí's work that would continue
throughout his life were already evident in the
1920s. Dalí devoured influences from many styles of
art, ranging from the most academically classic, to
the most cutting-edge avant garde.[19] His classical
influences included Raphael, Bronzino, Francisco de
Zurbarán, Vermeer, and Velázquez.[20] He used both
classical and modernist techniques, sometimes in
separate works, and sometimes combined.
Exhibitions of his works in Barcelona attracted
much attention along with mixtures of praise and
puzzled debate from critics.
Dalí grew a flamboyant moustache, influenced by
17th-century Spanish master painter Diego
Velázquez. The moustache became an iconic
trademark of his appearance for the rest of his life.
1929 to World War II
In 1929, Dalí collaborated with surrealist film
director Luis Buñuel on the short film Un Chien
Andalou (An Andalusian Dog). His main
contribution was to help Buñuel write the script for
the film. Dalí later claimed to have also played a
significant role in the filming of the project, but this
is not substantiated by contemporary accounts.[21]
Also, in August 1929, Dalí met his lifelong and
primary muse, inspiration, and future wife Gala,[22]
born Elena Ivanovna Diakonova. She was a Russian
immigrant ten years his senior, who at that time was
married to surrealist poet Paul Éluard. In the same
year, Dalí had important professional exhibitions
and officially joined the Surrealist group in the
Montparnasse quarter of Paris. His work had already
been heavily influenced by surrealism for two years.
The Surrealists hailed what Dalí called his
paranoiac-critical method of accessing the
subconscious for greater artistic creativity.[7][8]
Meanwhile, Dalí's relationship with his father was
close to rupture. Don Salvador Dalí y Cusi strongly
disapproved of his son's romance with Gala, and saw
his connection to the Surrealists as a bad influence
on his morals. The final straw was when Don
Salvador read in a Barcelona newspaper that his son
had recently exhibited in Paris a drawing of the
Sacred Heart of Jesus Christ, with a provocative
inscription: "Sometimes, I spit for fun on my
mother's portrait".[23]
Outraged, Don Salvador demanded that his son
recant publicly. Dalí refused, perhaps out of fear of
expulsion from the Surrealist group, and was
violently thrown out of his paternal home on
December 28, 1929. His father told him that he
would be disinherited, and that he should never set
foot in Cadaqués again. The following summer, Dalí
and Gala rented a small fisherman's cabin in a
nearby bay at Port Lligat. He bought the place, and
over the years enlarged it, gradually building his
much beloved villa by the sea. Dalí's father would
eventually relent and come to accept his son's
companion.[24]
The Persistence of Memory
In 1931, Dalí painted one of his most famous works,
The Persistence of Memory,[25] which introduced a
surrealistic image of soft, melting pocket watches.
The general interpretation of the work is that the soft
watches are a rejection of the assumption that time is
rigid or deterministic. This idea is supported by
other images in the work, such as the wide
expanding landscape, and other limp watches shown
being devoured by ants.[26]
Dalí and Gala, having lived together since 1929,
were married in 1934 in a semi-secret civil
ceremony. They later remarried in a Catholic
ceremony in 1958.[27] In addition to inspiring many
artworks throughout her life, Gala would act as
Dalí's business manager, supporting their
extravagant lifestyle while adeptly steering clear of
insolvency. Gala seemed to tolerate Dalí's dalliances
with younger muses, secure in her own position as
his primary relationship. Dali continued to paint her
as they both aged, producing sympathetic and
adoring images of his muse. The "tense, complex
and ambiguous relationship" lasting over 50 years
would later become the subject of an opera Jo, Dalí
(I, Dalí) by Catalan composer Xavier Benguerel.[28]
Dalí was introduced to America by art dealer Julien
Levy in 1934. The exhibition in New York of Dalí's
works, including Persistence of Memory, created an
immediate sensation. Social Register listees feted
him at a specially organized "Dalí Ball". He showed
up wearing a glass case on his chest, which
contained a brassiere.[29] In that year, Dalí and Gala
also attended a masquerade party in New York,
hosted for them by heiress Caresse Crosby. For their
costumes, they dressed as the Lindbergh baby and
his kidnapper. The resulting uproar in the press was
so great that Dalí apologized. When he returned to
Paris, the Surrealists confronted him about his
apology for a surrealist act.[30]
While the majority of the Surrealist artists had
become increasingly associated with leftist politics,
Dalí maintained an ambiguous position on the
subject of the proper relationship between politics
and art. Leading surrealist André Breton accused
Dalí of defending the "new" and "irrational" in "the
Hitler phenomenon", but Dalí quickly rejected this
claim, saying, "I am Hitlerian neither in fact nor
intention".[31] Dalí insisted that surrealism could
exist in an apolitical context and refused to explicitly
denounce fascism.[citation needed] Among other factors,
this had landed him in trouble with his colleagues.
Later in 1934, Dalí was subjected to a "trial", in
which he was formally expelled from the Surrealist
group.[22] To this, Dalí retorted, "I myself am
surrealism".
[
In 1936, Dalí took part in the London International
Surrealist Exhibition. His lecture, titled Fantômes
paranoiaques authentiques, was delivered while
wearing a deep-sea diving suit and helmet.[32] He
had arrived carrying a billiard cue and leading a pair
of Russian wolfhounds, and had to have the helmet
unscrewed as he gasped for breath. He commented
that "I just wanted to show that I was 'plunging
deeply' into the human mind."[33]
Also in 1936, at the premiere screening of Joseph
Cornell's film Rose Hobart at Julien Levy's gallery
in New York City, Dalí became famous for another
incident. Levy's program of short surrealist films
was timed to take place at the same time as the first
surrealism exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art,
featuring Dalí's work. Dalí was in the audience at the
screening, but halfway through the film, he knocked
over the projector in a rage. "My idea for a film is
exactly that, and I was going to propose it to
someone who would pay to have it made," he said.
"I never wrote it down or told anyone, but it is as if
he had stolen it". Other versions of Dalí's accusation
tend to the more poetic: "He stole it from my
subconscious!" or even "He stole my dreams!"[34]
In this period, Dalí's main patron in London was the
very wealthy Edward James. He had helped Dalí
emerge into the art world by purchasing many works
and by supporting him financially for two years.
They also collaborated on two of the most enduring
icons of the Surrealist movement: the Lobster
Telephone and the Mae West Lips Sofa.[citation needed]
In 1938, Dalí met Sigmund Freud thanks to Stefan
Zweig. Later, in September 1938, Salvador Dalí was
invited by Gabrielle Coco Chanel to her house "La
Pausa" in Roquebrune on the French Riviera. There
he painted numerous paintings he later exhibited at
Julien Levy Gallery in New York.[35][36] At the end
of the 20th century, "La Pausa" was partially
replicated at the Dallas Museum of Art to welcome
the Reeves collection and part of Chanel's original
furniture for the house.[37]
Also in 1938, Dali unveiled Rainy Taxi, a threedimensional artwork, consisting of an actual
automobile with two mannequin occupants. The
piece was first displayed at the Galerie Beaux-Arts
in Paris at the Exposition Internationale du
Surréalisme, organised by André Breton and Paul
Eluard. The Exposition was designed by artist
Marcel Duchamp, who also served as host.[38][39][40]
In 1939, André Breton coined the derogatory
nickname "Avida Dollars", an anagram for
"Salvador Dalí", and a phonetic rendering of the
French avide à dollars, which may be translated as
"eager for dollars".[41] This was a derisive reference
to the increasing commercialization of Dalí's work,
and the perception that Dalí sought selfaggrandizement through fame and fortune. Some
surrealists henceforth spoke of Dalí in the past tense,
as if he were dead.[citation needed] The Surrealist
movement and various members thereof (such as
Ted Joans) would continue to issue extremely harsh
polemics against Dalí until the time of his death, and
beyond.
World War II
In 1940, as World War II tore through Europe, Dalí
and Gala retreated to the United States, where they
lived for eight years. They were able to escape
because on June 20, 1940, they were issued visas by
Aristides de Sousa Mendes, Portuguese consul in
Bordeaux, France. Salvador and Gala Dalí crossed
into Portugal and subsequently sailed on the
Excambion from Lisbon to New York in August
1940. Dali’s arrival in New York was one of the
catalysts in the development of that city as a world
art center in the post-War years. After the move,
Dalí returned to the practice of Catholicism. "During
this period, Dalí never stopped writing", wrote
Robert and Nicolas Descharnes.[42]
In 1941, Dalí drafted a film scenario for Jean Gabin
called Moontide. In 1942, he published his
autobiography, The Secret Life of Salvador Dalí. He
wrote catalogs for his exhibitions, such as that at the
Knoedler Gallery in New York in 1943. Therein he
attacked some often-used surrealist techniques by
proclaiming, "Surrealism will at least have served to
give experimental proof that total sterility and
attempts at automatizations have gone too far and
have led to a totalitarian system. ... Today's laziness
and the total lack of technique have reached their
paroxysm in the psychological signification of the
current use of the college" (collage). He also wrote a
novel, published in 1944, about a fashion salon for
automobiles. This resulted in a drawing by Edwin
Cox in The Miami Herald, depicting Dalí dressing
an automobile in an evening gown.[42]
Also, in The Secret Life Dalí suggested that he had
split with Luis Buñuel because the latter was a
Communist and an atheist. Buñuel was fired (or
resigned) from his position at the Museum of
Modern Art (MOMA), supposedly after Cardinal
Spellman of New York went to see Iris Barry, head
of the film department at MOMA. Buñuel then went
back to Hollywood where he worked in the dubbing
department of Warner Brothers from 1942 to 1946.
In his 1982 autobiography Mon Dernier soupir (My
Last Sigh, 1983), Buñuel wrote that, over the years,
he had rejected Dalí's attempts at reconciliation.[43]
An Italian friar, Gabriele Maria Berardi, claimed to
have performed an exorcism on Dalí while he was in
France in 1947.[44] In 2005, a sculpture of Christ on
the Cross was discovered in the friar's estate. It had
been claimed that Dalí gave this work to his exorcist
out of gratitude,[44] and two Spanish art experts
confirmed that there were adequate stylistic reasons
to believe the sculpture was made by Dalí.[44]
Later years in Spain
Dalí in 1972.
From 1949 onwards, Dalí spent his remaining years
back in Spain. In 1959, André Breton organized an
exhibit called Homage to Surrealism, celebrating the
fortieth anniversary of Surrealism, which contained
works by Dalí, Joan Miró, Enrique Tábara, and
Eugenio Granell. Breton vehemently fought against
the inclusion of Dalí's Sistine Madonna in the
International Surrealism Exhibition in New York the
following year.
Late in his career, Dalí did not confine himself to
painting, but experimented with many unusual or
novel media and processes: he made bulletist
works.[46] Many of his works incorporated optical
illusions, negative space, visual puns, and trompe
l'oeil visual effects. He also experimented with
pointillism, enlarged half-tone dot grids (which Roy
Lichtenstein would later use), and stereoscopic
images.[47] He was among the first artists to employ
holography in an artistic manner.[48] In his later
years, young artists such as Andy Warhol
proclaimed Dalí an important influence on pop art.
Dalí also had a keen interest in natural science and
mathematics. This is manifested in several of his
paintings, notably from the 1950s, in which he
painted his subjects as composed of rhinoceros horn
shapes. According to Dalí, the rhinoceros horn
signifies divine geometry because it grows in a
logarithmic spiral. He also linked the rhinoceros to
themes of chastity and to the Virgin Mary.[50] Dalí
was also fascinated by DNA and the tesseract (a 4dimensional cube); an unfolding of a hypercube is
featured in the painting Crucifixion (Corpus
Hypercubus).
At some point, Dalí had a glass floor installed in a
room near his studio. He made extensive use of it to
study foreshortening, both from above and from
below, incorporating dramatic perspectives of
figures and objects into his paintings.[51] He also
delighted in using the room for entertaining guests
and visitors to his house and studio.
Dalí's post–World War II period bore the hallmarks
of technical virtuosity and an intensifying interest in
optical effects, science, and religion. He became an
increasingly devout Catholic, while at the same time
he had been inspired by the shock of Hiroshima and
the dawning of the "atomic age". Therefore Dalí
labeled this period "Nuclear Mysticism." In
paintings such as The Madonna of Port Lligat (first
version) (1949) and Corpus Hypercubus (1954),
Dalí sought to synthesize Christian iconography
with images of material disintegration inspired by
nuclear physics.[52] His Nuclear Mysticism works
included such notable pieces as La Gare de
Perpignan (1965) and The Hallucinogenic Toreador
(1968–70). In 1960, Dalí began work on his Teatro
Museo (Dalí Theatre and Museum) in his home
town of Figueres; it was his largest single project
and the main focus of his energy through 1974. He
continued to make additions through the mid1980s.[citation needed]
In 1968, Dalí filmed a humorous television
advertisement for Lanvin chocolates.[53] In this, he
proclaims in French "Je suis fou du chocolat
Lanvin!" (I'm crazy about Lanvin chocolate) while
biting a morsel causing him to become crosseyed
and his moustache to swivel upwards. In 1969, he
designed the Chupa Chups logo in addition to
facilitating the design of the advertising campaign
for the 1969 Eurovision Song Contest and creating a
large on-stage metal sculpture that stood at the
Teatro Real in Madrid.
In the television programme Dirty Dalí: A Private
View broadcast on Channel 4 on June 3, 2007, art
critic Brian Sewell described his acquaintance with
Dalí in the late 1960s, which included lying down in
the fetal position without trousers in the armpit of a
figure of Christ and masturbating for Dalí, who
pretended to take photos while fumbling in his own
trousers.[54][55]
Sant Pere in Figueres, scene of Dalí's Baptism, First
Communion, and funeral
Dalí's crypt at the Dalí Theatre and Museum in
Figueres, stating his title
In 1980, Dalí's health took a catastrophic turn. His
near-senile wife, Gala, allegedly had been dosing
him with a dangerous cocktail of unprescribed
medicine that damaged his nervous system, thus
causing an untimely end to his artistic capacity. At
76 years old, Dalí was a wreck, and his right hand
trembled terribly, with Parkinson-like symptoms.[56]
In 1982, King Juan Carlos bestowed on Dalí the title
of Marqués de Dalí de Púbol[57][58] (Marquis of Dalí
de Púbol) in the nobility of Spain, hereby referring
to Púbol, the place where he lived. The title was in
first instance hereditary, but on request of Dalí
changed for life only in 1983.[57] To show his
gratitude for this, Dalí later gave the king a drawing
(Head of Europa, which would turn out to be Dalí's
final drawing) after the king visited him on his
deathbed.
Gala died on June 10, 1982, at the age of 87. After
Gala's death, Dalí lost much of his will to live. He
deliberately dehydrated himself, possibly as a
suicide attempt, or perhaps in an attempt to put
himself into a state of suspended animation as he
had read that some microorganisms could do. He
moved from Figueres to the castle in Púbol, which
he had bought for Gala and was the site of her death.
In 1984, a fire broke out in his bedroom[59] under
unclear circumstances. It was possibly a suicide
attempt by Dalí, or possibly simple negligence by
his staff.[17] In any case, Dalí was rescued and
returned to Figueres, where a group of his friends,
patrons, and fellow artists saw to it that he was
comfortable living in his Theater-Museum in his
final years.
There have been allegations that Dalí was forced by
his guardians to sign blank canvases that would
later, even after his death, be used in forgeries and
sold as originals.[60] As a result, art dealers tend to be
wary of late works attributed to Dalí.[citation needed]
In November 1988, Dalí entered the hospital with
heart failure; a pacemaker had already been
implanted previously. On December 5, 1988, he was
visited by King Juan Carlos, who confessed that he
had always been a serious devotee of Dalí.[61]
On January 23, 1989, while his favorite record of
Tristan and Isolde played, he died of heart failure at
Figueres at the age of 84. Coming full circle, he is
buried in the crypt of his Teatro Museo in Figueres.
The location is across the street from the church of
Sant Pere, where he had his baptism, first
communion, and funeral, and is three blocks from
the house where he was born.[62]
The Gala-Salvador Dalí Foundation currently serves
as his official estate.[63] The US copyright
representative for the Gala-Salvador Dalí
Foundation is the Artists Rights Society.[64] In 2002,
the Society made the news when they asked Google
to remove a customized version of its logo put up to
commemorate Dalí, alleging that portions of specific
artworks under their protection had been used
without permission. Google complied with the
request, but denied that there was any copyright
violation.[citation needed]
Symbolism
Dalí employed extensive symbolism in his work. For
instance, the hallmark "melting watches" that first
appear in The Persistence of Memory suggest
Einstein's theory that time is relative and not
fixed.[26] The idea for clocks functioning
symbolically in this way came to Dalí when he was
staring at a runny piece of Camembert cheese on a
hot August day.
The elephant is also a recurring image in Dalí's
works. It first appeared in his 1944 work Dream
Caused by the Flight of a Bee Around a
Pomegranate a Second Before Awakening. The
elephants, inspired by Gian Lorenzo Bernini's
sculpture base in Rome of an elephant carrying an
ancient obelisk,[66] are portrayed "with long,
multijointed, almost invisible legs of desire"[67]
along with obelisks on their backs. Coupled with the
image of their brittle legs, these encumbrances,
noted for their phallic overtones, create a sense of
phantom reality. "The elephant is a distortion in
space", one analysis explains, "its spindly legs
contrasting the idea of weightlessness with
structure."[67] "I am painting pictures which make me
die for joy, I am creating with an absolute
naturalness, without the slightest aesthetic concern, I
am making things that inspire me with a profound
emotion and I am trying to paint them honestly." —
Salvador Dalí, in Dawn Ades, Dalí and Surrealism.
The egg is another common Dalíesque image. He
connects the egg to the prenatal and intrauterine,
thus using it to symbolize hope and love;[68] it
appears in The Great Masturbator and The
Metamorphosis of Narcissus. The Metamorphosis of
Narcissus also symbolized death and petrification.
Various other animals appear throughout his work as
well: ants point to death, decay, and immense sexual
desire; the snail is connected to the human head (he
saw a snail on a bicycle outside Freud's house when
he first met Sigmund Freud); and locusts are a
symbol of waste and fear.[68]
Science
References to Dalí in the context of science are
made in terms of his fascination with the paradigm
shift that accompanied the birth of quantum
mechanics in the twentieth century. Inspired by
Werner Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle, in 1958
he wrote in his "Anti-Matter Manifesto": "In the
Surrealist period, I wanted to create the iconography
of the interior world and the world of the marvelous,
of my father Freud. Today, the exterior world and
that of physics has transcended the one of
psychology. My father today is Dr. Heisenberg."[69]
In this respect, The Disintegration of the Persistence
of Memory, which appeared in 1954, in hearkening
back to The Persistence of Memory, and in
portraying that painting in fragmentation and
disintegration summarizes Dalí's acknowledgment of
the new science.[69]
Endeavors outside painting
Dalí was a versatile artist. Some of his more popular
works are sculptures and other objects, and he is also
noted for his contributions to theatre, fashion, and
photography, among other areas.
Salvador Dalí
Spanish Civil War: An Overview
Cary Nelson
In a longer historical perspective the Spanish Civil War amounts to the
opening battle of World War II, perhaps the only time in living memory
when the world confronted—in fascism and Nazism—something like
unqualified evil. The men and women who understood this early on and
who chose of their own free will to stand against fascism have thus
earned a special status in history. Viewed internally, on the other hand,
the Spanish Civil War was the culmination of a prolonged period of
national political unrest—unrest in a country that was increasingly
polarized and repeatedly unable to ameliorate the conditions of terrible
poverty in which millions of its citizens lived. Spain was a country in
which landless peasants cobbled together a bare subsistence living by
following the harvests on vast, wealthy agricultural estates. The
hierarchy of the Catholic Church, identifying more with wealthy
landowners than with the Spanish people, was in full control of
secondary education; education for women seemed to them unnecessary
and universal literacy a danger rather than a goal. Divorce was illegal.
The military, meanwhile, had come to see itself, rather
melodramatically, as the only bulwark against civil disorder and as the
ultimate guarantor of the core values of Spanish society.
When a progressive Popular Front government was elected in February
1936, with the promise of realistic land reform one of its key planks,
conservative forces immediately gathered to plan resistance. The
Spanish Left, meanwhile, celebrated the elections in a way that made
conservative capitalists, military officers, and churchmen worried that
much broader reform might begin. Rumors of plotting for a military
coup led leaders of the Republic to transfer several high-ranking military
officers to remote postings, the aim being to make communication and
coordination between them more difficult. But it was not enough. The
planning for a military rising continued.
The military rebellion took place on July 18, with the officers who
organized it expecting a quick victory and a rapid takeover of the entire
country. What the military did not anticipate was the determination of
the Spanish people, who broke into barracks, took up arms, and crushed
the rebellion in key areas like the cities of Madrid and Barcelona. It was
at that point that the character of the struggle changed, for the military
realized they were not going to win by fiat. Instead they faced a
prolonged struggle against their own people and an uncertain outcome.
They appealed to fascist dictatorships in Italy, Germany, and Portugal
for assistance, and they soon began receiving both men and supplies
from Benito Mussolini, Adolf Hitler, and Antonio Salazar.
The 1936 Spanish election had already been widely celebrated as a great
victory in progressive publications in Britain, France, and the United
States. In the midst of a worldwide depression, the military rising was
thus immediately seen as an assault against working people's interests
everywhere. But the rapid intervention of German and Italian troops
gave what might otherwise have remained a civil war a dramatic
international character. Almost from the outset, then, the Spanish Civil
War became a literal and symbolic instance of the growing worldwide
struggle between fascism and democracy. Indeed, the Republic, the
elected government, perceived the country as being invaded by foreign
troops. By the time the pilots of Hitler's Condor Legion reduced the
Basque's holy city of Guernica to rubble the following April, many in
the rest of the world had come to share that opinion as well.
It is important to remember in this context the curiously contradictory
character of life during the Great Depression. Hand in hand with
widespread poverty and suffering went a certain fervent hope for change
and a belief in the possibility of finding collective solutions to common
economic problems. The government elected in Spain in 1936 seemed
like it would contribute materially to those solutions.
Fascism, on the other hand, presented the forces of reaction in their most
violent form. Its territorial ambitions became apparent when Japan
invaded Manchuria in the winter of 1931-32 and when Italy invaded
Ethiopia in 1935. Meanwhile, Hitler elevated religious and racial hatred
to national policy almost immediately after establishing his dictatorship
in 1933. A relentless series of anti-Semitic campaigns, beginning with a
1933 boycott of Jewish firms and followed by the formal liquidation of
Jewish businesses and a prohibition against Jewish doctors continuing
their medical practices, culminated in 1935 when Jews were stripped of
all rights of citizenship. When Hitler and Mussolini immediately allied
themselves with Franco, and when Franco himself began to make
pronouncements about conducting a holy war against a progressive
conspiracy—rhetoric with long-standing anti-Semitic connotations—the
cultural and political status of the Republic's enemies became clear.
In retrospect, it seems possible that world history might have proceeded
differently had the democracies taken a strong stand against fascism in
Spain in 1936. But they did not. Despite almost universal support for the
Republic amongst British intellectuals and widespread support amongst
the working classes, the British government preferred not to act. It was
not only that they feared anything that might lead to a wider war in
Europe, a fear that would eventually lead to the infamous Munich
appeasement policy of 1938, but also that British businessmen and a
majority of the British Cabinet felt more sympathetic with Franco. Large
corporations in America also worked on Franco's behalf. In France, the
government's sympathies were with the Republic, but the government
was weak and feared not only a wider war but also any acts that might
alienate its own military.
After providing the Loyalist government with a score of planes, France
decided instead to propose an international policy of Non-Intervention
that would bar all foreign aid to Spain. In fact, if Franco and the
rebellious generals had been denied Italy's and Germany's aid in the
early days of the war, the rebellion might well have collapsed. But Hitler
and Mussolini simply ignored the Non-Intervention agreement.
Meanwhile, Mexico responded by shipping rifles to the Republic, and
the Soviet Union sold the Spanish government arms in exchange for
Spain's gold reserves. But it was not enough over time to counterbalance the men and supplies Franco received. Over and over again
throughout the war government campaigns would be overwhelmed by
superior arms. And just as frequently in the letters that follow you will
hear the hope that non-intervention will be overturned. For the
Americans this was not an abstract matter. Better machine guns would
have kept some of them alive at Jarama. More planes and artillery would
have made a difference at the Ebro.
On July 18, 1936, a carefully coordinated series of military uprisings
were staged all across Spain. Success or failure sometimes depended on
accident or clever strategy. In one small city the military commander
pretended to support the Republic, armed the workers, and sent them to
help secure Madrid; he then took over for the rebels. In Barcelona, on
the other hand, anarchist workers seized arms and put down the rebellion
with violent street fighting. After a few days, the rebels held about a
third of the country, though there were large stretches of Spain under no
real military control. Meanwhile, the government kept control of most of
the navy when ships' crews rose up and threw their rebellious officers
overboard. That left the rebel generals in serious difficulty, for their best
troops, the Army of Africa, were in Morocco with no means of transport
to the mainland. At that point Hitler and Mussolini provided support that
proved critical—planes to move the Army of Africa, now under
command of General Francisco Franco, to Seville. It would be the first
major air-lift of troops in military history. Hitler would later observe that
"Franco ought to erect a monument to the glory of the Junkers 52. It is
this aircraft that the Spanish revolution has to thank for its victory"
(Thomas, 370).
The first battles in the field, still in mid-July, took place over the
mountain passes that would have given the rebels access to the capital
city of Madrid. The people of Madrid had organized into militias based
on political affiliation, and these untrained troops paid dearly to defend
the passes through the Guadarrama mountains to the city's north. In any
case, the battles resulted in a stalemate. The rebels, now calling
themselves the Nationalists, began to organize to attack Madrid from the
southwest. Four columns moved across the Spanish countryside,
systematically murdering government supporters in each town they
captured. On October 1 Franco took overall command of the rebel
armies. Meanwhile, in the major cities a period of chaos was coming to
an end. For a time the militias had carried out summary executions
against their enemies, but gradually more centralized control prevailed.
As the rebel columns approached Madrid there was widespread
expectation that the city would fall. The government fled to Valencia,
leaving the city's defense to General Miaja. Then several remarkable
events occurred. On November 7 Madrid's defenders found a highly
detailed plan for the conquest of the city on the body of a fascist officer.
The plan was so specific that the Loyalists concluded it could not be
changed even if the rebels guessed it might have been captured, and it
enabled the city to position its best forces exactly where they would do
the most good. The following day the first International Brigades
marched through the city, signalling world support for the city's
defenders and placing a number of people with battlefield experience at
key points. That night Fernando Valera, a Republican deputy, read this
statement over the air:
Here in Madrid is the universal frontier that separates liberty and
slavery. It is here in Madrid that two incompatible civilizations
undertake their great struggle: love against hate, peace against war, the
fraternity of Christ against the tyranny of the Church . . . . This is
Madrid. It is fighting for Spain, for humanity, for justice, and, with the
mantle of its blood, it shelters all human beings! Madrid! Madrid!
The Spanish capital had come to stand for something much more than
itself; it was now the heart of the world. For a time, indeed, international
volunteers often declared themselves off to defend Madrid.
The first volunteers came spontaneously, though their individual
decisions were often based in antifascism. A number of foreign nationals
were in Barcelona for the "Peoples' Olympiad," scheduled in protest
against the 1936 Olympics to be held in Berlin. When the Olympiad was
cancelled by the outbreak of war, some of these men and women stayed
on to fight. British painter Felicia Brown joined the street fighting in
Barcelona and was killed in August. Two British cyclists in France
crossed the border and volunteered. André Malraux, the French novelist,
organized a squadron of a dozen pilots, the "Escuadrilla España," based
first in Barcelona and then in Madrid. Before long, American volunteers
were in the skies over Madrid as well.
But perhaps most telling of all decisions to volunteer were those by
German and Italian exiles from fascism, some of them escapees from
Nazi concentration camps. Some were already living in Barcelona;
others made their way to Spain from elsewhere in Europe. It was thus in
Spain that German and Italian antifascists in significant numbers took up
arms against the fascist powers they could not fight at home. German
volunteers formed the Thaelmann Centuria; Italians organized
themselves into the Gastone-Sozzi Battalion and the Giustizia e Libertà
Column. In all, perhaps 1,000-1,500 foreign volunteers fought in the
Barcelona area in the opening two months of the war. Not many lived to
see the war's end. Two years later, in September of 1938, other German
volunteers, now members of the Thaelmann Battalion in the
International Brigades, were occupying a hill of unforgiving rock in the
Sierra Pandols west of the Ebro river. They faced a vastly superior
fascist force in full counterattack and were ordered to retreat. Their reply
came back, saying, in effect, "Sorry, we've retreated before fascism too
many times. We're staying." Shortly thereafter their positions were
overrun.
The International Brigades themselves became a reality when the
Moscow-based Comintern (Communist International) decided to act on
Spain's behalf. Negotiations with the Spanish government took place in
late October. Stalin's motivations, no doubt, were pragmatic. He
probably hoped, for example, to use an alliance to help the Spanish
Republic as a way of building a general antifascist alliance with the
Western democracies. But it was too soon. That alliance would come,
but only after Munich, after Spain had fallen, and after the West tried
every imaginable means of appeasing Hitler. In any case, early in
November, about the time the attack on Madrid commenced, word
reached New York to begin recruiting Americans for service in Spain.
Although the task had to be carried out in secret, it was less difficult than
one might think, for antifascism was already intense among the
American Left. Indeed, future Lincoln Battalion members were already
taking public stands. Poet and journalist Edwin Rolfe began publishing
newspaper articles attacking Nazism in 1934. In Philadelphia, Ben
Gardner was arrested for disorderly conduct at a demonstration at the
German consulate. A pro-German judge sentenced him to a year in the
county jail. And in New York harbor in 1935 seaman Bill Bailey scaled
the mast of a German passenger ship, the Bremen, that was flying the
swastika. With the enraged crew shouting beneath him, Bailey cut the
black flag loose and flung it into the water. Two years later these men
would all be in Spain.
Despite the diversity of their backgrounds, one may make some
generalizations about the Americans who volunteered. The youngest
were three eighteen-year-olds, the oldest were fifty-nine and sixty. Over
eighty of the volunteers were African Americans, and the International
Brigades were entirely integrated. In fact, the Lincoln Battalion was
commanded for a time by Oliver Law, an African-American volunteer
from Chicago, until he died in battle. It was the first time in American
history that an integrated military force was led by an African American
officer. Most of the American volunteers were unmarried, although, as
their letters reveal, many had relationships back home they tried to
sustain by correspondence. Their median age was twenty-seven, their
median birth date 1910. About eighteen percent came from New York
and most of the rest came from other cities. Perhaps a third were Jews.
By the time large numbers of American volunteers began to arrive in
Spain early in 1937, the flamboyant early days of the militias were over.
The militias had been reorganized into Mixed Brigades more firmly
under government control. In those first months untrained and lightly
trained men and women had held the fascist advance at the very
outskirts of the capital. Barricades had been thrown up across Madrid's
streets in anticipation of fighting in the city itself. As the front stabilized,
the University campus overlooking the wooded Casa de Campo on the
city's western edge was heavily entrenched, with both sides holding
some of the shattered buildings. Mount Garibitas, the highest point in the
area, was taken by the fascists and provided a good site from which to
shell the city. But the Republic's fully organized People's Army was yet
a dream; it would take the bloodletting at Jarama, described in Chapter
3, to persuade many of its necessity. Meanwhile, most Americans passed
through the massive fort at Figueras near the border and headed on to
Albacete, a provincial capital midway between Madrid and Valencia that
was the administrative center for the International Brigades. From there
they moved to one of several nearby villages where individual battalions
trained.
In March an overconfident Italian-Spanish force commanded by one of
Mussolini's Generals, Mario Roatta, suffered an embarrassing defeat at
the battle of Guadalajara, northeast of Madrid. That, for all practical
purposes, put an end to major assaults on the capital, though it continued
to be shelled throughout the war. The next important battles took place
in northern Spain, as Franco set out to overrun the isolated Basque
provinces loyal to the Republic. On April 26 Hitler's Condor Legions
firebombed the ancient Basque town of Guernica, a place of no military
importance, and reduced it to rubble. It was the single most telling
indication of fascist ruthlessness toward civilians to date, a lesson
residents of cities in Europe and England would themselves learn in
time. It led Picasso to produce his massive painting "Guernica," perhaps
the most famous work of graphic art to come out of the war. Meanwhile,
the Spanish government attempted to take pressure off the north with a
major offensive west of Madrid in the summer of 1937. It was called the
battle of Brunete. Though Franco's northern campaign was delayed, it
did not stop. After eighty days of fighting, Bilbao was taken on June
19th, Santander on August 26th.
Meanwhile, the Popular Front government (a coalition of middle-class
republicans, moderate socialists, and communists) had endured a civil
war within the civil war in Catalonia. The government was about to
integrate the remaining Catalan militias into the People's Army, a step
the radical Left regarded as "a euphemism for disarmament and
repression of the class-conscious revolutionary workers" (Jackson, 119).
Believing that the government was exclusively concerned with defeating
Franco and indifferent or antagonistic toward the major social revolution
needed in Spain, an anti-Stalinist Marxist group, the POUM, provoked
several days of rioting and sporadic fighting in early May of 1937 in
Barcelona. They were joined by the more radical contingents of
Catalonian anarchists. This gave the Spanish communists—a rather
small party at the outset of the war that had gained membership and
prestige in the months since—the excuse they needed to crush the
POUM, a group they reviled beyond reason. In the ensuing crackdown
the POUM leader Andrés Nin was taken prisoner and murdered, and
other enemies of the Communist Party were tortured. By mid-June the
POUM had been declared illegal. For some, this meant the betrayal of
all the more utopian aims of the Spanish Left and a certain
disillusionment with the cause of the Republic. For others, a crackdown
seemed essential because a unified leadership focused on winning the
war was indeed necessary; a full social revolution would have to wait
until fascism was defeated. What is clear is that the internal dissension
on the Left damaged the spirit of resistance in Catalonia. Negotiation
and compromise, rather than violence, would have served all parties
better in the face of Franco's armies.
Although International Brigade members did not have fully detailed
knowledge of events in Barcelona, their letters show consistent
antagonism toward the POUM. Moreover, since they were being
bombed, strafed, and shot at by Franco's troops, they certainly
considered winning the war the first priority. And their own experience
confirmed the need for a unified military command that could train
recruits; coordinate troop movements with aircraft, artillery, and tanks;
and supply food, ammunition, and medical services, tasks that were
quite beyond the Catalonian militias.
In any case the ensuing months were taken up for the Lincolns not in
intrigue but in battle. Like the perspective of Spanish soldiers in the
field, the Lincolns' view of the war was thus quite different from that of
those Spanish nationals who were occupied with political struggles in
Madrid and Barcelona. The battle of Brunete in the unbelievable heat of
July of 1937 was followed by Quinto and Belchite in August and
Fuentes de Ebro in October. Then, after a brief period of training, the
Lincolns faced the snows of Teruel in January and February of 1938.
Taken by the Republic for a time, Teruel was recaptured by a massive
Nationalist counterattack in February.
Franco followed up that victory with a major offensive aimed toward the
Levante and Catalonia. Launched on March 9, 1938, it involved 100,000
men and over six hundred Italian and German planes. In the histories of
the American role in Spain the events are known as "The Great
Retreats," for that is what the Republic's forces had to do. They were
faced with continuous bombing from the air and a Panzer-style massed
tank assault at key points. At the end of the month El Campesino's
division made a last stand before the city of Lérida, but Franco's
offensive continued. It was to prove the single worst blow against the
Republic in nearly two years of war, for on April 15 the rebels reached
the Mediterranean and cut the Republic in two. By the end of the month
Franco held a fifty-mile stretch of coast. Some felt the war was over, but
the Republic held on, buoyed by a brief resupply of arms and by the
hope that the democracies would surely now repeal the Non-Intervention
policy, for Germany had invaded Austria on March 12. Did the world
need still more evidence of fascism's ambitions?
To resist, to hold on, was in part to buy enough time for the world to
confront reality. Unfortunately, the British commitment to an
appeasement policy was already in place. The Republic now had enough
arms for one last great campaign, training and planning for which began
immediately. It was to be a crossing of the Ebro in July of 1938, into
territory lost in March and April. Initially successful, the Republic's
forces were gradually pressed back by the rebel counter-offensive. Even
in August or September, arms might have made a difference, but the
watershed event of the fall of 1938 was not to be the resupply of Spain's
democracy. It was to be Munich.
At the end of September, British and French representatives met with
Hitler and Mussolini and granted Hitler Czechoslovakia. Shamefully,
Czech representatives were not invited. Meanwhile, with that agreement
another unrepresented nation's fate was effectively sealed, for with the
signing of the Munich Accord it was clear that the democracies would
not stand against fascism in Spain. The Internationals were withdrawn,
and Spain fought on alone for several more months. In late November
Hitler resupplied the Nationalists with arms. Franco started his final
offensive, taking Barcelona in January. At the end of March, Madrid
fell. On April 1, 1939, the Spanish Civil War officially came to an end.
For many, however, the suffering was not over. It was not to be a civil
war ending in reconciliation, for Franco began a reign of terror aimed at
the physical liquidation of all his potential enemies. Concentration
camps were set up. Tens of thousands were shot. Mass executions would
continue until 1944. Meanwhile, World War II was under way, and
many of the volunteers took up arms against fascism again.
La Guerra civil
española
La Guerra Civil de España
Spanish Civil War
Spanish Civil War
The Spanish
Civil War
was fought from 17 July 1936 to 1 April 1939
between the Republicans, who were loyal to the
established Spanish republic, and the
Nationalists, a rebel group led by General
Francisco Franco. The Nationalists prevailed
and Franco would rule Spain for the next 36
years.
The war began after a pronunciamiento
(declaration of opposition) by a group of
generals of the Spanish Republican Armed
Forces under the leadership of José Sanjurjo
against the elected government of the Second
Spanish Republic, at the time under the
leadership of President Manuel Azaña. The
rebel coup was supported by a number of
conservative groups including the Spanish
Confederation of the Autonomous Right,[nb 3]
monarchists such as the religious conservative
Carlists, and the Fascist Falange.
The coup was supported by military units in
Morocco, Pamplona, Burgos, Valladolid, Cádiz,
Cordova, and Seville. However, barracks in
important cities such as Madrid, Barcelona,
Valencia, Bilbao and Málaga did not join in the
rebellion. Spain was thus left militarily and
politically divided. The rebels, led by General
Franco, then embarked upon a war of attrition
against the established government for the
control of the country. The rebel forces received
support from Nazi Germany, the Kingdom of
Italy, and neighboring Portugal, while the Soviet
Union and Mexico intervened in support of the
"loyalist," or Republican, side. Other countries,
such as the United Kingdom and France,
operated an official policy of non-intervention.
Atrocities were committed by both sides in the
war. Organised purges occurred in territory
captured by Franco's forces to consolidate the
future regime.[6] A smaller but significant
number of killings took place in areas controlled
by the Republicans, normally associated with a
breakdown in law and order.[7] The extent to
which Republican authorities connived in
Republican territory killings varied.[8][9] The
Civil War became notable for the passion and
political division it inspired. Tens of thousands
of civilians on both sides were killed for their
political or religious views, and after the War's
conclusion in 1939, those associated with the
losing Republicans were persecuted by the
victorious Nationalists.
The war ended with the victory of the
Nationalists and the exile of thousands of leftleaning Spaniards, many of whom fled to
refugee camps in Southern France. With the
establishment of a Fascist dictatorship led by
General Francisco Franco in the aftermath of the
Civil War, all right-wing parties were fused into
the structure of the Franco regime.[5]
Guerra Civil Española
[mostrar]
Guerra Civil Española

[mostrar]
Guerra aérea durante la
Guerra Civil Española

[mostrar]
Guerra naval durante la
Guerra Civil Española

La Guerra Civil Española fue un conflicto
social, político y militar —que más tarde
repercutiría también en un conflicto
económico— que se desencadenó en España
tras el fracaso parcial del golpe de estado del 17
y 18 de julio de 1936 llevado a cabo por una
parte del ejército contra el gobierno de la
Segunda República Española, y que se daría por
terminada el 1 de abril de 1939 con el último
parte de guerra firmado por Francisco Franco,
declarando su victoria y estableciéndose una
dictadura que duraría hasta su muerte en 1975.
Como ha señalado el historiador Santos Juliá la
guerra civil española de 1936 a 1939 fue varias
guerras a la vez. "Fue desde luego lucha de
clases por las armas, en la que alguien podía
morir por cubrirse la cabeza con un sombrero o
calzarse con alpargatas los pies, pero no fue en
menor medida guerra de religión, de
nacionalismos enfrentados, guerra entre
dictadura militar y democracia republicana,
entre revolución y contrarrevolución, entre
fascismo y comunismo".2
A las partes del conflicto se las suele denominar
bando republicano y bando sublevado:

El bando republicano estuvo constituido en
torno al gobierno legítimo de España,
democráticamente elegido, formado por el
Frente Popular, que a su vez se componía
de una coalición de partidos republicanos
—Izquierda Republicana y Unión
Republicana— con el Partido Socialista
Obrero Español, a la que se habían sumado
los marxistas el Partido Comunista de
España, POUM, el Partido Sindicalista de
origen anarquista y en Cataluña los
nacionalistas de izquierda encabezados por
Esquerra Republicana de Cataluña. Era
apoyado por el movimiento obrero y los
sindicatos UGT y CNT, aunque ellos lo que
perseguían era realizar la revolución social.
También se había decantado por el bando
republicano el Partido Nacionalista Vasco,
cuando las Cortes republicanas estaban a
punto de aprobar el Estatuto de Autonomía
para el País Vasco.

El bando sublevado, que se llamó a sí
mismo bando nacional, estuvo organizado
en torno a gran parte del alto mando
militar, institucionalizado inicialmente en la
Junta de Defensa Nacional sustituida por el
nombramiento del general Franco como
Generalísimo y Jefe del Gobierno del Estado,
y se apoyó en el partido fascista Falange
Española, la Iglesia Católica y la derecha
conservadora —monárquicos alfonsinos,
cedistas y carlistas—. Socialmente fue
apoyado, principalmente, por aquellas
clases que la victoria en las urnas del Frente
Popular —que iba a continuar con las
políticas reformistas del primer bienio de la
Segunda República Española— sintieron
peligrar su posición social y estaban
temerosas del anticlericalismo y de un
posible estallido de la revolución del
proletariado. Como ha señalado el
historiador norteamericano Edward
Malefakis, "en la España de 1936, aunque
una parte de los militares iniciara la
contienda, la guerra no puede definirse —
como a veces sigue haciéndose— como la
lucha de los militares —o del Ejército más
un puñado de terratenientes ricos y jerarcas
eclesiásticos— contra el resto de la
sociedad. Sin el apoyo de muchos españoles
-en especial de las clases medias y altas,
pero también de las humildes: millones de
pequeños propietarios y gente religiosa-, el
alzamiento no se hubiera convertido en
guerra civil, pese a la mayor eficacia militar
con que los rebeldes contaban al principio".
Ambos bandos cometieron y se acusaron
recíprocamente de la comisión de graves
crímenes en el frente y en las retaguardias. El
triunfante régimen franquista investigó y
condenó severamente los hechos delictivos en la
zona republicana después de la guerra, en una
Causa General con escasas garantías procesales.
Por su parte, los delitos de los vencedores nunca
fueron investigados ni enjuiciados, aunque
algunos historiadores4 5 y juristas6 7 sostienen
que hubo un genocidio8 en el que, además de
subvertir el orden institucional, se habría
intentado exterminar a la oposición política.9 10
En 2008, el entonces juez Baltasar Garzón inició
la instrucción de un procedimiento criminal pero
el pleno de la Sala de Lo Penal de la Audiencia
Nacional decidió por mayoría de votos que el
Juzgado Central de Instrucción nº 5 dirigido por
Garzón carecía de competencia objetiva para
investigarlos, al considerar extinguida la posible
responsabilidad criminal de los investigados a
causa de su fallecimiento
Las consecuencias de la Guerra civil han
marcado en gran medida la historia posterior de
España, por lo excepcionalmente dramáticas y
duraderas: tanto las demográficas (aumento de
la mortalidad y descenso de la natalidad que
marcaron la pirámide de población durante
generaciones) como las materiales (destrucción
de las ciudades, la estructura económica, el
patrimonio artístico), intelectuales (fin de la
denominada Edad de Plata de las letras y
ciencias españolas) y políticas (la represión en
la retaguardia de ambas zonas —mantenida por
los vencedores con mayor o menor intensidad
durante todo el franquismo— y el exilio
republicano), y que se perpetuaron mucho más
allá de la prolongada posguerra, incluyendo la
excepcionalidad geopolítica del mantenimiento
del régimen de Franco hasta 1975.
Fin -la guerra civil
Fernando Botero
o
J
Fernando Botero
Angulo
(born April 19, 1932) is
a Colombian figurative
artist. His works feature
a figurative style, called
by some "Boterismo",
Fernando Botero
which gives them an
unmistakable identity.
Fernando
Birth name
Botero
Botero depicts women,
Angulo
men, daily life,
historical events and
characters, milestones of
art, still-life, animals
and the natural world in
general, with
exaggerated and
disproportionate volumetry, accompanied by fine details
of scathing criticism, irony, humor, and ingenuity.
Self-titled "the most Colombian of Colombian artists"
early on, he came to national prominence when he won
the first prize at the Salón de Artistas Colombianos in
1958. Working most of the year in Paris, in the last three
decades he has achieved international recognition for his
paintings, drawings and sculpture, with exhibitions across
the world.[1] His art is collected by major museums,
corporations and private collectors.
Early life and education
Fernando Botero was born the second of three children in
Medellín, Colombia. His parents were David Botero and
Flora Angulo. David Botero, a salesman who traveled by
horseback, died when Fernando was four, and his mother
worked as a seamstress. An uncle took a major role in his
life. Although isolated from art as presented in museums
and other cultural institutes, Botero was influenced by the
Baroque style of the colonial churches and then the rich
life of the city.
In 1944, after Botero attended a Jesuit school, Botero's
uncle sent him to a school for matadors for two years.[3] In
1948, at the age of 16, Botero published his first
illustrations in the Sunday supplement of the El
Colombiano daily paper. He used the money he was paid
to attend high school at the Liceo de Marinilla de
Antioquia.
Career
Botero's work was first exhibited in 1948, in a group
show along with other artists from the region.[4]
Fernando Botero, Abu Ghraib, 2005, oil on canvas. Botero
painted the abuses of Abu Ghraib between 2004 and 2005 as a
permanent accusation
Woman with fruit by Fernando Botero in Hay Market - Bamberg
From 1949 to 1950, Botero worked as a set designer,
before moving to Bogotá in 1951. His first one-man show
was held at the Galería Leo Matiz in Bogotá, a few
months after his arrival. In 1952, Botero travelled with a
group of artists to Barcelona, where he stayed briefly
before moving on to Madrid.
In Madrid, Botero studied at the Academia de San
Fernando.[5] In 1952, he traveled to Bogotá, where he had
a solo exhibit at the Leo Matiz gallery.
In 1953, Botero moved to Paris, where he spent most of
his time in the Louvre, studying the works there. He lived
in Florence, Italy from 1953 to 1954, studying the works
of Renaissance masters.[4] In recent decades, he has lived
most of the time in Paris, but spends one month a year in
his native city of Medellín. He has had more than 50
exhibits in major cities worldwide, and his work
commands selling prices in the millions of dollars.[6] In
1958, he won the ninth edition of the Salón de Artistas
Colombianos.[7]
Style
While his work includes still-lifes and landscapes, Botero
has concentrated on situational portraiture. His paintings
and sculptures are united by their proportionally
exaggerated, or "fat" figures, as he once referred to them.
Botero explains his use of these "large people", as they
are often called by critics, in the following way:
"An artist is attracted to certain kinds of form without
knowing why. You adopt a position intuitively; only later
do you attempt to rationalize or even justify it]
Botero is an abstract artist in the most fundamental sense,
choosing colors, shapes, and proportions based on
intuitive aesthetic thinking. Though he spends only one
month a year in Colombia, he considers himself the "most
Colombian artist living" due to his insulation from the
international trends of the art world.
In 2004 Botero exhibited a series of 27 drawings and 23
paintings dealing with the violence in Colombia from the
drug cartels. He donated the works to the National
Museum of Colombia, where they were first exhibited.
In 2005 Botero gained considerable attention for his Abu
Ghraib series, which was exhibited first in Europe. He
based the works on reports of United States forces' abuses
of prisoners at Abu Ghraib prison during the Iraq War.
Beginning with an idea he had on a plane journey, Botero
produced more than 85 paintings and 100 drawings in
exploring this concept and "painting out the poison".The
series was exhibited at two United States locations in
2007, including Washington, DC. Botero said he would
not sell any of the works, but would donate them to
museums.
In 2006, after having focused exclusively on the Abu
Ghraib series for over 14 months, Botero returned to the
themes of his early life such as the family and maternity.
In his Une Famille Botero represented the Colombian
family, a subject often painted in the seventies and
eighties. In his Maternity, Botero repeated a composition
he already painted in 2003, being able to evoke a
sensuous velvety texture that lends it a special appeal and
testifies for a personal involvement of the artist. The child
in the 2006 drawing has a wound in his right chest as if
the Author wanted to identify him with Jesus Christ, thus
giving it a religious meaning that was absent in the 2003
artwork.
In 2008 he exhibited the works of his The Circus
collection, featuring 20 works in oil and watercolor. In a
2010 interview, Botero said that he was ready for other
subjects: "After all this, I always return to the simplest
things: still lifes."
Fin Botero
META ARTISTAS
a continuar……
María de los Remedios Varo y Urando
María de los Remedios Alicia Rodriga
Varo y Uranga
(n. 16 de diciembre de 1908 en Anglès
(Gerona), España — 8 de octubre de
1963 en Ciudad de México) más
conocida como Remedios Varo, fue una
pintora surrealista hispano-mexicana.
Biografía
Nacida el 16 de diciembre de 1908 en
Anglès (Gerona), España. Mostró desde
pequeña una natural inclinación e interés por
la pintura. Alentada por su padre ingresó en
1924, a la edad de 15 años, a la Academia de
San Fernando en Madrid.
Al final de sus estudios, contrajo
matrimonio con uno de sus compañeros de
estudios, Gerardo Lizárraga, con quien parte
a París, Francia, donde residirá durante un
año.2 A su retorno en 1932, se establece en
Barcelona, donde ejerce en compañía de su
esposo el oficio de dibujante publicitario.
En 1935 se separó de su primer esposo,3 y
conoce al pintor Esteban Francés, quien la
introduce al círculo surrealista de André
Breton. Una vez familiarizada con el
movimiento surrealista, se integra al grupo
Logicofobista, que pretendía representar los
estados mentales internos del alma,
utilizando formas sugerentes de tales
estados. Durante su colaboración con este
grupo, Remedios Varo pinta L´Agent
Double, obra que ya anticipa su estilo
reconocido posteriormente.
Durante la guerra civil española, Remedios
Varo queda del lado republicano. También
durante este período y en buena medida
gracias a su activo soporte a los
antifascistas, conoce al poeta Benjamín
Péret, con quien establece una relación
amorosa, y parte por segunda vez a París,
ciudad donde residirá hasta la invasión nazi.
4
En 1941 la pintora y el poeta abandonan la
Francia ocupada y emigran a México, país
donde gracias a la política del presidente
Lázaro Cárdenas de acogida de refugiados
políticos, son rápidamente naturalizados y
autorizados a desarrollar una actividad
laboral.
En 1947 Remedios se separa de Benjamín
Péret, quien retorna al París ya liberado para
entonces. Gracias a sus contactos anteriores
y sus actividades en México, Remedios
parte ese año a Venezuela, como integrante
de una expedición científica del Instituto
Francés de América Latina. Estando en
Venezuela, además de su trabajo de
ilustradora entomológica, la pintora pudo
continuar enviando carteles publicitarios
para Bayer, así como trabajar un corto lapso
para el instituto de malariología
venezolano.5
En el año de 1949 regresa a México, donde
continuará con su labor de ilustradora
publicitaria. Hasta que en 1952 contrae
segundas nupcias con el político austríaco
Walter Gruen, con quien permaneció hasta
el final de sus días.4
Fue Gruen quien convence a Remedios Varo
de abandonar sus labores comerciales, para
consagrarse totalmente a la pintura.
En 1955, la pintora presenta al público sus
trabajos en una primera exposición
colectiva, en la galería Diana de la Ciudad
de México, seguida al año siguiente de una
exposición individual.6
Durante su estancia en México, la pintora
conoció personalmente a artistas como Frida
Kahlo y Diego Rivera, pero estableció nexos
de amistad más fuertes con otros
intelectuales en el exilio, en particular la
también pintora surrealista Leonora
Carrington.7
Falleció de un paro cardíaco el 8 de octubre
de 1963 en Ciudad de México.
Su obra
La obra de la pintora es vasta y compleja,
ameritando un análisis más profundo que el
que puede darse en este espacio.
Empero, puede mencionarse que la obra de
Remedios Varo posee un estilo
característico y fácilmente reconocible. En
su obra aparecen con frecuencia figuras
humanas estilizadas realizando tareas
simbólicas, en las cuales se tienen a la vez
elementos oníricos y arquetípicos. Su obra
entera está teñida de una atmósfera de
misticismo, pero plasmado en las figuras
representativas del mundo secular moderno.
Su pintura está puntualizada por un marcado
interés por la iconografía científica. De allí
que en tiempos recientes, las obras de la
pintora sean retomadas cada vez con más
frecuencia en la literatura de divulgación.
Lista de trabajos representativos
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1935 El Tejido de los Sueños
1942 Gruta Mágica
1947 Paludismo (Libélula)
1947 El Hombre de la Guadaña (Muerte
en el Mercado)
1947 La Batalla
1947 Insomnia
1947 Amibiasis o los Vegetales
1955 Ciencia inútil o el Alquimista
1955 Ermitaño meditando
1955 La Revelación o el Relojero
1955 Trasmundo
1955 El Flautista
1955 El Paraíso de los Gatos
1956 A la felicidad de las damas
1957 Creación de las aves
1957 Modista
1957 Caminos tortuosos
1957 Reflejo Lunar
1957 El Gato Helecho
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1958 Papilla estelar
1959 Exploración de las fuentes del río
Orinoco
1959 Catedral Vegetal
1959 Encuentro
1960 Mujer saliendo del psicoanalista
1960 Visita al cirujano plástico
1960 Hacia la torre
1961 Vampiro
1961 Tejiendo el manto terrestre
1962 Vampiros Vegetarianos
1962 Fenómeno de ingravidez
1962 Tránsito espiral
1963 Naturaleza Muerta Resucitando
Juicio de Intestado
En el año 2000, Walter Gruen donó su
colección de obras de Remedios Varo al
Museo de Arte Moderno de México. La
mayoría de estas obras fueron legalmente
compradas a coleccionistas privados que a
su vez las habían adquirido legalmente en
galerías. Fueron declaradas monumento
artístico mexicano el 26 de diciembre de
2001.
Por medio de un extraño movimiento
judicial, avalado por las jueces María
Margarita Gallegos López y Rebeca Pujol
Rosas, en ese año la española Beatriz María
Varo Jiménez, sobrina y también pintora, es
declarada por el Juzgado Décimo Tercero de
lo Familiar en el Distrito Federal de México
como única y universal albacea de la
sucesión de bienes de su tía Remedios Varo.
En marzo de 2005 el Instituto Nacional de
Bellas Artes apela el dictamen, el cual se
suspende temporalmente en lo que
instancias judiciales más competentes
revisan el extraño caso.
Cabe señalar que, en vida, la pintora vendió
o regaló la mayoría de sus obras, aduciendo
que lo que más le importaba era el proceso
creativo, no las obras en sí; las cuales, al
dejar de pertenecerle, dejaron también, de
acuerdo a la ley, de ser parte de su herencia.
Remedios Varo
Useless Science or the Alchemist, 1955
Born
December 16, 1908
Anglès, Girona
Died
October 8, 1963 (aged 54)
Nationality
Spanish
Field
Painting
Movement
Surrealism
Remedios Varo Uranga (December 16,
1908 – October 8, 1963) was a SpanishMexican, para-surrealist painter and
anarchist. She was born María de los
Remedios Alicia Rodriga Varo y
Uranga in Anglès, a small town in the
province of Girona, Spain in 1908. In
1924 she studied at the Academia de San
Fernando de Madrid. During the Spanish
Civil War she fled to Paris where she
was greatly influenced by the surrealist
movement. She met her second husband
(the first was the painter Gerardo
Lizarraga, whom, as was discovered after
her death, she never divorced), the
French surrealist poet Benjamin Péret in
Barcelona. There she was a member of
the art group Logicophobiste. They were
introduced through a mutual friendship
with the Surrealist artist Oscar
Dominguez.
Due to her Republican ties, her 1937
move to Paris with Péret ensured that she
would never be able to return to Franco's
Spain. She was forced into exile from
Paris during the Nazi occupation of
France and moved to Mexico City at the
end of 1941. She initially considered
Mexico a temporary haven, but would
remain in Latin America for the rest of
her life.
In Mexico, she met native artists such as
Frida Kahlo and Diego Rivera, but her
strongest ties were to other exiles and
expatriates, notably the English painter
Leonora Carrington and the French pilot
and adventurer, Jean Nicolle. Her third,
and last, important relationship was to
Walter Gruen, an Austrian who had
endured concentration camps before
escaping Europe. Gruen believed fiercely
in Varo, and he gave her the support that
allowed her to fully concentrate on her
painting.
After 1949 Varo developed her mature
style, which remains beautifully
enigmatic and instantly recognizable. She
often worked in oil on masonite panels
she prepared herself. Although her colors
have the blended resonance of the oil
medium, her brushwork often involved
many fine strokes of paint laid closely
together - a technique more reminiscent
of egg tempera. She died at the height of
her career from a heart-attack in Mexico
City in 1963.
Her work continues to achieve successful
retrospectives at major sites in Mexico
and the United States. Currently, the
ownership of 39 of her paintings, first
loaned and then given by Gruen to
Mexico City's Museum of Modern Art in
1999 is in dispute. Varo's niece Beatriz
Varo Jimenez of Valencia, Spain, claims
Gruen had no rights to those works.
Gruen, now 91, claims he inherited no
works from Varo, who died intestate.
Varo never divorced the husband she
married in Spain in 1930: a court denied
Gruen's request in 1992 to be given
inheritance rights as the artist's commonlaw husband. He and his wife,
Alexandra, whom he married in 1965,
acquired all the paintings given to the
museum on the open market after Varo's
death and are therefore his to give. He
said he gave the only painting in Varo's
studio at the time of her death, "Still Life
Reviving," to the artist's mother. The
work was auctioned at Sotheby's New
York in 1994 for $574,000.

çEarly life
Varo’s father, Rodrigo Varo y Zajalvo,
was an intellectual man who had a strong
influence on his daughter’s artistic
development. Varo would copy the
blueprints he brought home from his job
in construction and he helped her further
develop her technical drawing abilities.
He encouraged independent thought and
supplemented her education with science
and adventure books, notable the novels
of Alexandre Dumas, Jules Verne, and
Edgar Allan Poe. As she grew older he
provided her with text on mysticism and
philosophy. Varo’s mother, Ignacia
Uranga Bergareche, was born to Basque
parents in Argentina. She was a devout
Catholic and commended herself to the
patron saint of Angles, the Virgin of Los
Remedios, promising to name her first
daughter after the saint.
The Varo family left Anglès in 1913
when Varo was only 5. Varo spent her
childhood experiencing different places
and cultures. From Anglès the family
moved to Cadiz where he father was
appointed the king of Spain’s economic
affairs representative in Morocco. The
family then moved to Larache, a town in
northern Morocco and finally settled in
Madrid in 1917. Those first few years of
her life left an impression on her that
would later show up in motifs like
machinery, furnishing, artifacts, and
Romanesque and Gothic architecture
unique to Anglès.
Varo was given the basic education
deemed proper for young ladies of a
good upbringing at a convent school - an
experience that fostered her rebellious
tendencies. Varo took a critical view of
religion and rejected the religious
ideology of her childhood education and
instead clung to the liberal and
universalist ideas that her father instilled
in her.
[edit] Formative Years
The very first works of Varo’s, a selfportrait and several portraits of family
members, date to 1923 when she was
studying for a baccalaureate at the
School of Arts and Crafts. In 1924 she
enrolled in the San Fernando Fine Arts
Academy in Madrid, the alma mater of
Salvador Dali and other renowned artists.
Varo got her diploma as a drawing
teacher in 1930. While in Madrid, Varo
had her initial introduction to Surrealism
through lectures, exhibitions, films and
theater. She was a regular visitor to the
Prado Museum and took particular
interest in the paintings of Hieronymus
Bosch, most notably The Garden of
Earthly Delights.
In 1930 Varo married fellow painter and
former schoolmate, Gerardo Lizarraga.
The couple moved to Paris immediately
after their wedding and remained there
for a year.
[edit] Career Beginnings
After spending a year in Paris, Varo
moved to Barcelona and formed her first
artistic circle of friends, which included
Josep-Lluis Florit, Oscar Dominguez and
Esteban Frances. Varo soon separated
from her husband and shared a studio
with Frances in a neighborhood filled
with young avant-garde artists. The
summer of 1935 marked Varo’s formal
invitation into Surrealism when French
surrealist Marcel Jean arrived in
Barcelona. That same year along with
Jean and his artist friends, Dominguez
and Frances, Varo created a surrealist
game that was meant to explore the
subconscious association of participants
by pairing different images at random.
These associations were called cadavres
exquis, meaning exquisite corpses, and
perfectly illustrated the principle Andre
Breton wrote in his Surrealist manifestos.
Varo soon joined a collective of artists
and writers, called the Logicofobistas,
who had an interest in Surrealism and
wanted to unite art together with
metaphysics while resisting logic and
reason. Varo exhibited with this group in
1936 at the Galeria Catalonia although
she recognized they were not pure
Surrealists.
When the Spanish Civil War began the
French Surrealist poet, Benjamin Peret,
came to Barcelona to support the antiFranco cause and met Varo. It was the
beginning of an intensely romantic
relationship that was recorded in the
many letters declaring his love and
publications dedicated to Varo. In 1937,
Peret moved back to France and Varo
followed.
Career
Europe
Varo shared a studio in Paris with
Benjamin Peret and Esteban Frances. It
was through Peret that she met Andre
Breton and the Surrealist circle, which
included Leonora Carrington, Dora
Maar, Roberto Matta and Max Ernst
among others. Shortly after arriving in
France, Varo took part in the
International Surrealist exhibition in
Paris and Amsterdam in 1938. She drew
vignettes for the Dictionnaire abrege du
surrealisme and the magazines
Trajectoire du Reve, Visage du Monde
and Minotaure featured her work. In late
1938 she participated in a collaborative
series, Jeu de dessin communiqué (The
Game of Communicated Drawings), of
works with Breton and Peret. The series
was much like a game. It began with an
initial drawing, which was shown to
someone for 3 seconds, and then that
person tried to recreate what they had
been shown. The cycle continued with
their drawing and so on. Apparently, this
led to very interesting psychological
implications that Varo later used in her
paintings many times.
The Surrealist Circle fell apart when
WWII broke out and Hitler’s troups
invaded Paris. Varo was imprisoned but
there is no information as to where or for
how long because she refused to speak
about the experience. On November 20,
1941 Varo, along with Peret and
Rubinstein, boarded the Serpa Pinto in
Marseilles to flee war-torn Europe and
find refuge in Mexico.
Mexico
Varo’s imagination flourished while
living in Mexico City, this resulted in a
series of disturbing and puzzling
paintings. The work she produced earned
her recognition as one of the greatest
painters in Mexico during the twentieth
century. Varo was soon a part of an
artistic circle of European refugees that
included Leonora Carrington and Kati
Horna who became close friends of Varo.
Carrington and Varo read and discussed
books on alchemy, witchcraft, magic,
mythology, and Kabbalah. They also
shared their dreams and discovered their
new home together. The collaboration
between these two first resulted in two
plays, but became more evident in their
paintings as they addressed similar
concepts.
Major influences
Artistic influences
Renaissance art inspired harmony, tonal
nuances, unity, and narrative structure in
Varo’s paintings. The allegorical nature
of much of Varo's work especially recalls
the paintings of Hieronymus Bosch, and
some critics, such as Dean Swinford,
have described her art as "postmodern
allegory," much in the tradition of
Irrealism.
Varo was also influenced by styles as
diverse as those of Francisco Goya, El
Greco, Picasso, and Braque. While
André Breton was a formative influence
in her understanding of Surrealism, some
of her paintings bear an uncanny
resemblance to the Surrealist creations of
the modern Greek-born Italian painter
Giorgio de Chirico.
In Mexico, she was influenced by preColumbian art.
Varo's painting The Lovers served as
inspiration for some of the images used
by Madonna in the music video for her
1995 single "Bedtime Story".
Philosophical influences
Varo was influenced by a wide range of
mystic and hermetic traditions, both
Western and non-Western. She turned
with equal interest to the ideas of C. G.
Jung as to the theories of G. I. Gurdjieff,
P. D. Ouspensky, Meister Eckhart, and
the Sufis, and was as fascinated with the
legend of the Holy Grail as with sacred
geometry, alchemy and the I-Ching. In
1938 and 1939 Varo joined her closest
companions Frances, Roberto Matta, and
Gordon Onslow Ford in exploring the
fourth dimension, basing much of their
studies off of Ouspensky’s book Tertium
Oganum. The books Illustrated
Anthology of Sorcery, Magic, and
Alchemy by Grillot de Givry and The
History of Magic and the Occult by Kurt
Seligmann were highly valued in
Breton’s Surrealist circle. She saw in
each of these an avenue to selfknowledge and the transformation of
consciousness.
Interpretations to her body of work
The male surrealists almost never saw
their female counterparts as capable
artists; therefore, the female surrealists
were forced to find ways of working
within the restrictions of the surrealist
misconceived definition of woman, while
still trying to refute it. Varo does this
through her images of women in
confined spaces.
Later in her career, Varo’s characters
developed into her emblematic
androgynous figures with heart-shaped
faces, large and lonely eyes, and the
aquiline noses that mimic her own
features. The sense of isolation was
achieved again and again as Varo
secluded her characters in one
environment or another, conveying an
extraordinarily powerful message to
those who paid attention long enough to
notice it. Her use of seemingly
autobiographical characters—confined
and held captive by forces unknown—
could be seen as exposing the dynamic of
superiority that is inherent in male
surrealist’s misuse of women as muses. It
could be interpreted that her paintings are
responses to the marginalization of
women; portrayals of the characteristic
misogynist treatment of women artists by
the male surrealists by likening her
characters and chimerical figures to
prisoners.
Varo’s legacy
When Remedios Varo died of a heart
attack in Mexico City in 1963, the art
world lamented their loss in her sudden
death. Her mature paintings, fraught with
arguably feminist meaning, are
predominantly from the last few years of
her life. Varo’s partner for the last 15
years of her life, Walter Gruen, dedicated
his life to cataloguing her work and
ensuring her legacy. The paintings of
androgynous characters that share Varo’s
facial features, mythical creatures, the
misty swirls and eerie distortions of
perspective are characteristic of Varo’s
unique brand of surrealism. Varo has
painted images of isolated, androgynous,
auto-biographical figures to highlight the
captivity of the true woman. While her
paintings have been interpreted as more
surrealist canvases that are the product of
her passion for mysticism and alchemy,
or as auto-biographical narratives, her
work carries implications far more
significant.
Antoní Gaudí
This is a Catalan name. The first family name is Gaudí and the second is Cornet.
Antoni Gaudí
Born
Died
25 June 1852
Reus, Catalonia, Spain[1][2]
10 June 1926 (aged 73)
Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
Buildings
Sagrada Família, Casa Milà, Casa Batlló
Projects
Park Güell, Colònia Güell
Antoni Gaudí i Cornet (Catalan
pronunciation: [ənˈtɔni ɣəwˈði]; 25 June
1852–10 June 1926) was a Spanish
Catalan architect and figurehead of
Catalan Modernism. Gaudí's works
reflect his highly individual and
distinctive style and are largely
concentrated in the Catalan capital of
Barcelona, notably his magnum opus, the
Sagrada Família.
Much of Gaudí's work was marked by his
big passions in life: architecture, nature,
religion.[3] Gaudí studied every detail of
his creations, integrating into his
architecture a series of crafts in which he
was skilled: ceramics, stained glass,
wrought ironwork forging and carpentry.
He introduced new techniques in the
treatment of materials, such as trencadís,
made of waste ceramic pieces.
After a few years under the influence of
neo-Gothic art and Oriental techniques,
Gaudí became part of the Catalan
Modernista movement which was
reaching its peak in the late 19th and
early 20th centuries. His work
transcended mainstream Modernisme,
culminating in an organic style inspired
by nature. Gaudí rarely drew detailed
plans of his works, instead preferring to
create them as three-dimensional scale
models and molding the details as he was
conceiving them.
Gaudí’s work enjoys widespread
international appeal and many studies are
devoted to understanding his
architecture. Today, his work finds
admirers among architects and the
general public alike. His masterpiece, the
still-uncompleted Sagrada Família, is one
of the most visited monuments in
Spain.[4] Between 1984 and 2005, seven
of his works were declared World
Heritage Sites by UNESCO. Gaudí’s
Roman Catholic faith intensified during
his life and religious images permeate his
work. This earned him the nickname
"God's Architect"[5] and led to calls for
his beatification.[6][7][8]
Antoni Gaudí
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Antoni Gaudí i Cornet
Gaudí fotografiado por Pablo Audouard (1878).
Información personal
Nacimiento
25 de junio de 1852
Riudoms o Reus, España
Defunción
10 de junio de 1926
(73 años)
Barcelona, España
Carrera profesional
Obras representativas[mostrar]
Proyectos
Hotel Atracción (Manhattan,
representativos
Nueva York) (no construido)
Firma de Antoni Gaudí i Cornet
Antoni Gaudí i Cornet (Riudoms o Reus,1 25
de junio de 1852 – Barcelona, 10 de junio de
1926) fue un arquitecto español, máximo
representante del modernismo catalán.
Gaudí fue un arquitecto con un sentido innato de
la geometría y el volumen, así como una gran
capacidad imaginativa que le permitía proyectar
mentalmente la mayoría de sus obras antes de
pasarlas a planos. De hecho, pocas veces
realizaba planos detallados de sus obras;
prefería recrearlos sobre maquetas
tridimensionales, moldeando todos los detalles
según los iba ideando mentalmente. En otras
ocasiones, iba improvisando sobre la marcha,
dando instrucciones a sus colaboradores sobre lo
que tenían que hacer.
Dotado de una fuerte intuición y capacidad
creativa, Gaudí concebía sus edificios de una
forma global, atendiendo tanto a las soluciones
estructurales como las funcionales y
decorativas. Estudiaba hasta el más mínimo
detalle de sus creaciones, integrando en la
arquitectura toda una serie de trabajos
artesanales que dominaba él mismo a la
perfección: cerámica, vidriería, forja de hierro,
carpintería, etc. Asimismo, introdujo nuevas
técnicas en el tratamiento de los materiales,
como su famoso “trencadís” hecho con piezas
de cerámica de desecho.
Después de unos inicios influenciado por el arte
neogótico, así como ciertas tendencias
orientalizantes, Gaudí desembocó en el
modernismo en su época de mayor
efervescencia, entre finales del siglo XIX y
principios del XX. Sin embargo, el arquitecto
reusense fue más allá del modernismo ortodoxo,
creando un estilo personal basado en la
observación de la naturaleza, fruto del cual fue
su utilización de formas geométricas regladas,
como el paraboloide hiperbólico, el
hiperboloide, el helicoide y el conoide.
La arquitectura de Gaudí está marcada por un
fuerte sello personal, caracterizado por la
búsqueda de nuevas soluciones estructurales,
que logró después de toda una vida dedicada al
análisis de la estructura óptima del edificio,
integrado en su entorno y siendo una síntesis de
todas las artes y oficios. Mediante el estudio y la
práctica de nuevas y originales soluciones, la
obra de Gaudí culminará en un estilo orgánico,
inspirado en la naturaleza, pero sin perder la
experiencia aportada por estilos anteriores,
generando una obra arquitectónica que es una
simbiosis perfecta de la tradición y la
innovación. Asimismo, toda su obra está
marcada por las que fueron sus cuatro grandes
pasiones en la vida: la arquitectura, la
naturaleza, la religión y el amor a Cataluña.2
La obra de Gaudí ha alcanzado con el transcurso
del tiempo una amplia difusión internacional,
siendo innumerables los estudios dedicados a su
forma de entender la arquitectura. Hoy día es
admirado tanto por profesionales como por el
público en general: la Sagrada Familia es
actualmente uno de los monumentos más
visitados de España.3 Entre 1984 y 2005 siete de
sus obras han sido consideradas Patrimonio de
la Humanidad por la Unesco.
”La belleza es el resplandor de la verdad, y
como que el arte es belleza, sin verdad no hay
arte”.
Antoni Gaudí.4

Biografía
El Mas de la Calderera, casa familiar de los
Gaudí en Riudoms.
Nacimiento, infancia y estudios
Antoni Gaudí nació en 1852, hijo del industrial
calderero Francesc Gaudí i Serra (1813-1906) y
de Antònia Cornet i Bertran (1819-1876). Era el
menor de cinco hermanos, de los que sólo
llegaron a edad adulta tres: Rosa (1844-1879),
Francesc (1851-1876) y Antoni. Los orígenes
familiares de Gaudí se remontan al sur de
Francia, en Auvernia, desde donde uno de sus
antepasados, Joan Gaudí, vendedor ambulante,
pasó a Cataluña en el siglo XVII; el apellido en
su origen podría ser Gaudy o Gaudin.5
Francesc Gaudí
Francesc Gaudí i Serra
Rosa Serra
Antoni Gaudí i
Cornet
Anton Cornet
Antònia Cornet i Bertran
Maria Bertran
Se desconoce el lugar exacto del nacimiento de
Gaudí, ya que no se conserva ningún documento
que lo especifique, existiendo una controversia
entre Reus y Riudoms (dos municipios vecinos
y colindantes de la comarca del Baix Camp)
sobre la localidad natalicia del arquitecto. Aun
así, en la mayoría de documentos de Gaudí,
tanto de su época de estudiante como en los de
su época profesional, figura como nacido en
Reus. Sin embargo, el propio Gaudí manifestó
en diversas ocasiones que era de Riudoms, lugar
de origen de su familia paterna.6 Lo que sí es
seguro es que fue bautizado en la iglesia prioral
de Sant Pere Apòstol de Reus el día después de
su nacimiento. El nombre que consta en su
partida de bautismo es Antoni Plàcid Guillem
Gaudí i Cornet.7
Fuese como fuese, Gaudí sintió un gran aprecio
por su tierra natal, lo que evidenciaba en su gran
mediterraneísmo, hecho que influyó
notablemente en su arquitectura: Gaudí decía
que los pueblos mediterráneos tienen un sentido
innato del arte y el diseño, que son creativos y
originales, mientras que los pueblos nórdicos
son más técnicos y repetitivos. En palabras del
propio Gaudí:
”Nosotros poseemos la imagen. La fantasía
viene de los fantasmas. La fantasía es de la
gente del Norte. Nosotros somos concretos. La
imagen es del Mediterráneo. Orestes sabe
adónde va, mientras que Hamlet divaga perdido
entre dudas”.8
Gaudí (al fondo) con su padre (centro), su
sobrina Rosa y el doctor Santaló en una visita a
Montserrat (1904).
La estancia en su tierra natal le sirvió asimismo
para conocer y estudiar profundamente la
naturaleza, sobre todo durante sus estancias
veraniegas en el Mas de la Calderera, la casa de
los Gaudí en Riudoms. Le gustaba el contacto
con la naturaleza, por lo que posteriormente se
hizo miembro del Centro Excursionista de
Cataluña (1879), entidad con la que realizó
numerosos viajes por toda Cataluña y el sur de
Francia. También practicó durante un tiempo la
equitación, y hasta su vejez caminaba unos diez
kilómetros diarios.9
El pequeño Gaudí era de naturaleza enfermiza, y
padeció reumatismo desde niño, lo que le
transmitió un carácter un tanto retraído y
reservado.10 Quizá por eso, de mayor se
convirtió en vegetariano11 12 y en partidario de
las teorías higienistas del doctor Kneipp.13
Debido a estas creencias –y por motivos
religiosos–, en ocasiones se entregaba a severos
ayunos, tanto que en ocasiones ponía en peligro
su propia vida, como en 1894, año en que cayó
gravemente enfermo a causa de un prolongado
ayuno.14
Realizó sus primeros estudios en el parvulario
del maestro Francesc Berenguer, padre del que
sería uno de sus principales colaboradores, y
luego pasó a los Escolapios de Reus; destacó en
dibujo, colaborando con el semanario El
Arlequín.15 También trabajó durante un tiempo
como aprendiz en la fábrica textil “Vapor Nou”
de Reus. En 1868 se trasladó a Barcelona para
cursar enseñanza media en el Convento del
Carmen de la ciudad condal. En su adolescencia
estuvo cercano al socialismo utópico, realizando
junto con dos compañeros de estudios, Eduard
Toda i Güell y Josep Ribera i Sans, un proyecto
de restauración para el Monasterio de Poblet
que lo convertiría en un falansterio utópicosocial.16
Entre 1875 y 1878 realizó el servicio militar en
el Arma de Infantería en Barcelona, siendo
destinado a Administración Militar. Pasó la
mayor parte del tiempo rebajado de servicio a
causa de su salud, por lo que pudo continuar con
los estudios. Gracias a ello no tuvo que entrar en
combate, pues coincidió en esas fechas con la
Tercera Guerra Carlista.17 En 1876 tuvo lugar el
triste suceso de la muerte de su madre, a los 57
años, así como la de su hermano Francesc a los
25, médico recién titulado que no llegó a
ejercer.
Cursó arquitectura en la Escuela de la Llotja y
en la Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura
de Barcelona, donde se graduó en 1878. Junto a
las asignaturas de arquitectura asistió a clases de
francés y cursó algunas asignaturas de Historia,
Economía, Filosofía y Estética. Su expediente
académico fue regular, con algún que otro
suspenso; Gaudí se preocupaba más de sus
propios intereses que de las asignaturas
oficiales.18 Elies Rogent, director de la Escuela
de Arquitectura de Barcelona, dijo en el
momento de otorgarle el título:
”Hemos dado el título a un loco o a un genio, el
tiempo lo dirá”.19
Para pagarse la carrera, Gaudí trabajó como
delineante para diversos arquitectos y
constructores, como Leandre Serrallach, Joan
Martorell, Emili Sala Cortés, Francisco de Paula
del Villar y Lozano y Josep Fontserè.20 Quizá
por eso, al recibir el título, Gaudí, con su irónico
sentido del humor, comentó a su amigo el
escultor Llorenç Matamala:
”Llorenç, dicen que ya soy arquitecto”.21
JOAN MIRÓ
" This is a Catalan name. The first family name is Miró and the second is Ferrà.
Joan Miró
Joan Miró, photo by Carl Van Vechten, June 1935
JOAN
MIRÓ
(Catalan pronunciation: [ʒuˈam miˈɾo]) (April 20, 1893 – December 25,
1983) was a Catalan painter, sculptor, and ceramicist born in Barcelona.
A museum dedicated to his work, the Fundació Joan Miró, was
established in his birth city in 1975.
Earning international acclaim, his work has been interpreted as
Surrealism, a sandbox for the subconscious mind, a re-creation of the
childlike, and a manifestation of Catalan pride. In numerous interviews
dating from the 1930s onwards, Miró expressed contempt for
conventional painting methods as a way of supporting bourgeois society,
and famously declared an "assassination of painting" in favour of
upsetting the visual elements of established painting.[1]

Biography
Born to the families of a goldsmith and a cabinet-maker, he grew up in
the Barri Gòtic neighborhood of Barcelona.[2] His father was Miquel
Miró Adzerias and his mother was Dolores Ferrà.[3] He began drawing
classes at the age of seven at a private school at Carrer del Regomir 13, a
medieval mansion. In 1907 he enrolled at the fine art academy at La
Llotja, to the dismay of his father. He studied at the Cercle Artístic de
Sant Lluc[4] and he had his first solo show in 1918 at the Dalmau
Gallery, where his work was ridiculed and defaced.[5] Inspired by Cubist
and surrealist exhibitions from abroad, Miró was drawn towards the arts
community that was gathering in Montparnasse and in 1920 moved to
Paris, but continued to spend his summers in Catalonia.[2]
Career
The Farm, 1921–1922, National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC.
Miró initially went to business school as well as art school. He began his
working career when he was a teenager as a clerk, although he
abandoned the business world completely for art after suffering a
nervous breakdown.[6] His early art, like that of the similarly influenced
Fauves and Cubists exhibited in Barcelona, was inspired by Vincent Van
Gogh and Paul Cézanne. The resemblance of Miró's work to that of the
intermediate generation of the avant-garde has led scholars to dub this
period his Catalan Fauvist period.[7]
A few years after Miró’s 1918 Barcelona solo exhibition, he settled in
Paris where he finished a number of paintings that he had begun on his
parents’ farm in Mont-roig del Camp. One such painting, The Farm,
showed a transition to a more individual style of painting and certain
nationalistic qualities. Ernest Hemingway, who later purchased the
piece, compared the artistic accomplishment to James Joyce’s Ulysses
and described it by saying, “It has in it all that you feel about Spain
when you are there and all that you feel when you are away and cannot
go there. No one else has been able to paint these two very opposing
things.”[8] Miró annually returned to Mont-roig and developed a
symbolism and nationalism that would stick with him throughout his
career. Catalan Landscape (The Hunter) and the Tilled Field, two of
Miró’s first works classified as Surrealist, employ the symbolic language
that was to dominate the art of the next decade.
In 1924, Miró joined the Surrealist group. The already symbolic and
poetic nature of Miró’s work, as well as the dualities and contradictions
inherent to it, fit well within the context of dream-like automatism
espoused by the group. Much of Miró’s work lost the cluttered chaotic
lack of focus that had defined his work thus far, and he experimented
with collage and the process of painting within his work so as to reject
the framing that traditional painting provided. This antagonistic attitude
towards painting manifested itself when Miró referred to his work in
1924 ambiguously as “x” in a letter to poet friend Michel Leiris.[9] The
paintings that came out of this period were eventually dubbed Miró’s
dream paintings.
Joan Miró, The Tilled Field, (1923–1924), Solomon R. Guggenheim
Museum. This early painting, a complex arrangement of objects and
figures, was Miró's first Surrealist masterpiece.
Miró did not completely abandon subject matter. Despite the Surrealist
automatic techniques that he employed extensively in the 1920s,
sketches show that his work was often the result of a methodical process.
Miró’s work rarely dipped into non-objectivity, maintaining a symbolic,
schematic language. This was perhaps most prominent in the repeated
Head of a Catalan Peasant series of 1924 to 1925. In 1926, he
collaborated with Max Ernst on designs for ballet impresario Sergei
Diaghilev. With Miró's help, Ernst pioneered the technique of grattage,
in which he troweled pigment onto his canvases. Miró returned to a
more representational form of painting with The Dutch Interiors of
1928. Crafted after works by Hendrik Martenszoon Sorgh and Jan Steen
seen as postcard reproductions, the paintings reveal the influence of a
trip to Holland taken by the artist. These paintings share more in
common with Tilled Field or Harlequin’s Carnival than with the
minimalistic dream paintings produced a few years earlier.
Miró married Pilar Juncosa in Palma (Majorca) on October 12, 1929;
their daughter Dolores was born July 17, 1931. In 1931, Pierre Matisse
opened an art gallery in New York City. The Pierre Matisse Gallery
(which existed until Matisse's death in 1989) became an influential part
of the Modern art movement in America. From the outset Matisse
represented Joan Miró and introduced his work to the United States
market by frequently exhibiting Miró's work in New York. Until the
outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, Miró habitually returned to Spain in
the summers. Once the war began, he was unable to return home. Unlike
many of his surrealist contemporaries, Miró had previously preferred to
stay away from explicitly political commentary in his work. Though a
sense of (Catalan) nationalism pervaded his earliest surreal landscapes
and Head of a Catalan Peasant, it wasn’t until Spain’s Republican
government commissioned him to paint the mural, The Reaper, for the
Spanish Republican Pavilion at the 1937 Paris Exhibition, that Miró’s
work took on a politically charged meaning.
In 1939, with Germany’s invasion of France looming, Miró relocated to
Varengeville in Normandy, and on May 20 of the following year, as
Germans invaded Paris, he narrowly fled to Spain (now controlled by
Francisco Franco) for the duration of the Vichy Regime’s rule. In
Varengeville, Palma, and Mont-roig, between 1940 and 1941, Miró
created the twenty-three gouache series Constellations. Revolving
around celestial symbolism, Constellations earned the artist praise from
André Breton, who seventeen years later wrote a series of poems, named
after and inspired by Miró's series.[16] Features of this work revealed a
shifting focus to the subjects of women, birds, and the moon, which
would dominate his iconography for much of the rest of his career.
Joan Miró, Blue I, Blue II, and Blue III, 1961, triptych in October 2010,
Centre Pompidou-Metz museum, Metz, France.[17]
Shuzo Takiguchi published the first monograph on Miró in 1940. In
1948–49 Miró lived in Barcelona and made frequent visits to Paris to
work on printing techniques at the Mourlot Studios and the Atelier
Lacourière. He developed a close relationship with Fernand Mourlot and
that resulted in the production of over one thousand different
lithographic editions.
In 1959, André Breton asked Miró to represent Spain in The Homage to
Surrealism exhibition alongside Enrique Tábara, Salvador Dalí, and
Eugenio Granell. Miró created a series of sculptures and ceramics for the
garden of the Maeght Foundation in Saint-Paul-de-Vence, France, which
was completed in 1964.
In 1974, Miró created a tapestry for the World Trade Center in New
York City. He had initially refused to do a tapestry, then he learned the
craft and produced several. His World Trade Center Tapestry was
displayed for many years at the World Trade Center building.[18] It was
one of the most expensive works of art lost during the September 11
attacks. In 1981, Miró's The Sun, the Moon and One Star—later
renamed Miró's Chicago—was unveiled. This large, mixed media
sculpture is situated outdoors in the downtown Loop area of Chicago,
across the street from another large public sculpture, the Chicago
Picasso. Miró had created a bronze model of The Sun, the Moon and
One Star in 1967. The maquette now resides in the Milwaukee Art
Museum.
Late life and death
In 1979 Miró received a doctorate honoris causa from the University of
Barcelona. Miró, who suffered from heart disease,[20] died in his home in
Palma (Majorca) on December 25, 1983.[21]
Works
Early Fauvist
His early modernist works include Portrait of Vincent Nubiola (1917),
Siurana - the Path, Nord-Sud (1917) and Painting of Toledo. These
works show the influence of Cézanne, and fill the canvas with a colorful
surface and a more painterly treatment than the hard-edge style of most
of his later works. In Nord-Sud, the literary newspaper of that name
appears in the still life, a compositional device common in cubist
compositions, but also a reference to the literary and avant-garde
interests of the painter.[22]
Magical Realism
Starting in 1920, Miró developed a very precise style, picking out every
element in isolation and detail and arranging them in deliberate
composition. These works, including House with Palm tree (1918),
Nude with a Mirror (1919), and The Table - Still Life with Rabbit
(1920), show the clear influence of Cubism, although in a restrained
way, being applied to only a proportion of the subject. For example, The
Farmers Wife (1922–23), is realistic, but some are stylized or deformed,
such as the treatment of the woman's feet, which are enlarged and
flattened.[23]
The culmination of this style was The Farm (1921–22). The rural
Catalan scene it depicts is augmented by an avant-garde French
newspaper in the center, showing Miró sees this work transformed by
the Modernist theories he had been exposed to in Paris. The
concentration on each element as equally important was a key step
towards generating a pictorial sign for each element. The background is
rendered in flat or patterned in simple areas, highlighting the separation
of figure and ground, which would become important in his mature
style. Miró made many attempts to promote this work, but his surrealist
colleagues found it too realistic and apparently conventional, and so he
soon turned to a more explicitly surrealist approach.[24]
Early Surrealism
From the summer of 1923 in Mont-roig, Miró began a key set of
paintings where abstracted pictorial signs, rather than the realistic
representations used in The Farm, are predominant. In The Tilled Field,
Catalan Landscape (The Hunter) and Pastoral (1923–24), these flat
shapes and lines (mostly black or strongly coloured) suggest the
subjects, sometimes quite cryptically. For Catalan Landscape (The
Hunter), Miró represents the hunter with a combination of signs: a
triangle for the head, curved lines for the moustache, angular lines for
the body. So encoded is this work that at a later time Miró provided a
precise explanation of the signs used.[25]
Surrealist Pictorial Language
Through the mid-1920s Miró developed the pictorial sign language
which would be central throughout the rest of his career. In Harlequin's
Carnival (1924–25), there is a clear continuation of the line begun with
The Tilled Field. But in subsequent works, such as The Happiness of
Loving My Brunette (1925) and Painting (Fratellini) (1927), there are
far fewer foreground figures, and those that remain are simplified.
Soon after Miró also began his Spanish Dancer series of works. These
simple collages, were like a conceptual counterpoint to his paintings. In
Spanish Dancer (1928) he combines a cork, a feather and a hatpin onto a
blank sheet of paper.
Dona i Ocell, 1982, Barcelona, Spain
Livres d'Artiste
Miró created over 250 illustrated books.[26] These were known as "Livres
d' Artiste." One such work was published in 1974, at the urging of the
widow of the French poet Robert Desnos, titled "Les pénalités de l'enfer
ou les nouvelles Hébrides" (The Penalties of Hell or The New Hebrides).
It was a set of 25 lithographs, five in black, and the others in colors.
In 2006 the book was displayed in “Joan Miró, Illustrated Books” at the
Vero Beach Museum of Art. One critic said it is “an especially powerful
set, not only for the rich imagery but also for the story behind the book's
creation. The lithographs are long, narrow verticals, and while they
feature Miró's familiar shapes, there's an unusual emphasis on texture."
The critic continued, “I was instantly attracted to these four prints, to an
emotional lushness, that's in contrast with the cool surfaces of so much
of Miró's work. Their poignancy is even greater, I think, when you read
how they came to be. The artist met and became friends with Desnos,
perhaps the most beloved and influential surrealist writer, in 1925, and
before long, they made plans to collaborate on a livre d'artiste. Those
plans were put on hold because of the Spanish civil war and World War
II. Desnos' bold criticism of the latter led to his imprisonment in
Auschwitz, and he died at age 45 shortly after his release in 1945.
Nearly three decades later, at the suggestion of Desnos' widow, Miró set
out to illustrate the poet's manuscript. It was his first work in prose,
which was written in Morocco in 1922 but remained unpublished until
this posthumous collaboration. “
The Fundació Joan Miró Museum in Montjuïc, Barcelona
Pájaro lunar (Moon Bird), 1966, Reina Sofia Museum, Madrid
Styles and Development
In Paris, under the influence of poets and writers, he developed his
unique style: organic forms and flattened picture planes drawn with a
sharp line. Generally thought of as a Surrealist because of his interest in
automatism and the use of sexual symbols (for example, ovoids with
wavy lines emanating from them), Miró's style was influenced in
varying degrees by Surrealism and Dada,[6] yet he rejected membership
in any artistic movement in the interwar European years. André Breton
described him as "the most Surrealist of us all." Miró confessed to
creating one of his most famous works, Harlequin's Carnival, under
similar circumstances:
"How did I think up my drawings and my ideas for painting? Well
I'd come home to my Paris studio in Rue Blomet at night, I'd go to
bed, and sometimes I hadn't any supper. I saw things, and I jotted
them down in a notebook. I saw shapes on the ceiling..."[27]
Miró's surrealist origins evolved out of "repression" much like all
Spanish surrealist and magic realist work, especially because of his
Catalan ethnicity, which was subject to special persecution by the
Franco regime. Also, Joan Miró was well aware of Haitian Voodoo art
and Cuban Santería religion through his travels before going into exile.
This led to his signature style of art making.[citation needed]
Experimental style
Joan Miró was among the first artists to develop automatic drawing as a
way to undo previous established techniques in painting, and thus, with
André Masson, represented the beginning of Surrealism as an art
movement.[by whom?] However, Miró chose not to become an official
member of the Surrealists in order to be free to experiment with other
artistic styles without compromising his position within the group. He
pursued his own interests in the art world, ranging from automatic
drawing and surrealism, to expressionism, Lyrical Abstraction, and
Color Field painting. Four-dimensional painting was a theoretical type
of painting Miró proposed in which painting would transcend its twodimensionality and even the three-dimensionality of sculpture.
Miró's oft-quoted interest in the assassination of painting is derived
from a dislike of bourgeois art, which he believed was used as a way to
promote propaganda and cultural identity among the wealthy.
Specifically, Miró responded to Cubism in this way, which by the time
of his quote had become an established art form in France. He is quoted
as saying "I will break their guitar," referring to Picasso's paintings, with
the intent to attack the popularity and appropriation of Picasso's art by
politics.
"The spectacle of the sky overwhelms me. I'm overwhelmed when I see,
in an immense sky, the crescent of the moon, or the sun. There, in my
pictures, tiny forms in huge empty spaces. Empty spaces, empty
horizons, empty plains - everything which is bare has always greatly
impressed me." - Joan Miró, 1958, quoted in Twentieth-Century Artists
on Art.
In an interview with biographer Walter Erben, Miró expressed his
dislike for art critics, saying, they "are more concerned with being
philosophers than anything else. They form a preconceived opinion, then
they look at the work of art. Painting merely serves as a cloak in which
to wrap their emaciated philosophical systems."[citation needed]
In the final decades of his life Miró accelerated his work in different
media, producing hundreds of ceramics, including the Wall of the Moon
and Wall of the Sun at the UNESCO building in Paris. He also made
temporary window paintings (on glass) for an exhibit. In the last years of
his life Miró wrote his most radical and least known ideas, exploring the
possibilities of gas sculpture and four-dimensional painting.
Exhibitions
Throughout the 1960s, Miró was a featured artist in many salon shows
assembled by the Maeght Foundation that also included works by Marc
Chagall, Giacometti, Brach, Cesar, Ubac, and Tal-Coat.
The large retrospectives devoted to Miró in his old age in towns such as
New York (1972), London (1972), Saint-Paul-de-Vence (1973) and
Paris (1974) were a good indication of the international acclaim that had
grown steadily over the previous half-century; further major
retrospectives took place posthumously. Political changes in his native
country led in 1978 to the first full exhibition of his painting and graphic
work, at the Museo Español de Arte Contemporáneo in Madrid. In 1993,
the year of the hundredth anniversary of his birth, several exhibitions
were held, among which the most prominent were those held in the
Fundació Pilar i Joan Miró, Barcelona, the Museum of Modern Art, New
York, the Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía, Madrid, and the
Galerie Lelong, Paris.[29] In 2011, another retrospective was mounted by
the Tate Modern, London, and travelled to Fundació Joan Miró and the
National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
Fin Miró
 Realidades 3
 Capítulo 1
examenes
Capítulo 2
El arte:
el fin
El arte
la estatua
dibujar
pintar
el pintor
la pintura
el cuadro
colores y luz
amarillo, -a
anaranjado, ‘-a
azul
blanco, -a
claro, -a
gris
marrón
morado, -a
negro, -a
oscuro, -a
pastel
rojo, -a
rosado, -a
verde
vivo, -a
descripciones
aburrido
bonito
complicado
divertido
exagerado
fascinante
feo
horrible
interesante
mejor
moderno
realista
sencillo
serio
triste
Materiales
El oro
El papel
La piedra
El plástico
La plata
Opiniones
A mí también
Tampoco
Creo que...
Estoy- no estoy de acuerdo
Me parece que...
No estoy seguro...
Para mi
Para ti
para vos
¿Qué te parece?
Comparaciones
Mas.....que
Menos........que
Tan.....como
Adjectives agree in gender and in number with the
nouns they describe
Una estatua moderna
Un cuadro moderno
Exceptions
Un dibujo realista
Una pintora surrrealista
Palabras Importantes
La naturaleza muerta
Sentada
Parado
El mural
El pincel
La Palata
Fondo
Primer plano
La pintura
El autorretrato
Escultor
Escultora
Representar
Representa
Expresar
Sentimientos
Alegría
Ceramica
Many adjectives in Spanish are past
participles
To form a past participle you add - ADO to the regular
-AR verbs and you add -IDO to the regular -ER and
-IR verbs.
Decorar decorado
Conocer conocido
Preferir preferido
The past participle is often used with ESTAR to describe
conditions that are the result of a previous action. In
these cases the past participle agrees with the subject.
El pintor está sentado. Las paredes estaban pintadas.
Irregular past participles
Abrir
abierto
Romper
Roto
Poner
puesto
Hacer
hecho
Decir
dicho
Ver
visto
Resolver
resuelto
Morir
muerto
Escribir
escrito
Volver
vuelto
Realidades 3
SER y ESTAR los usos
Use SER
 To describe permanent characteristics of objects
and people
Es canción es muy oeiginal.
 To indicate origin, nationality or profession
María es escritora. Es de Madrid.
 To indicate when and where something takes place.
El concierto es el viernes. Es en el teatro.
 To indicate possession
La guitarra es de Elisa.
Use ESTAR
 To describe temporary characteristics, emotional
states, or conditions.
El teatro está cerrado a esta hora.
Los actores están muy nerviosos.
 To indicate location
El conjunto está en el escenario.
 To form the progressive tense
El bailarín está interpretando a Cabral.
Some adjectives have different meaning depending on
whether they are used with ESTAR or with SER
La bailarina es bonita.
La bailarina está muy bonita hoy.
El cómico es aburrido.
El cómico está aburrido.
El cantante es rico.
El postre está rico.
El micrófono
La trompeta
actuar
Ritmo
ritmo
Poemas
Danza clásica
El Aplauso
El escenario
Una interpretación
La poeta
Pretérito vs. Imperfecto
 ...using them together
Este fin de semana tomé una clase de ceramica. Cuando
era niño, tomaba clases de escultura.
 Using the preterite to tell about past actions that
are complete
 Use the imperfect to tell about habitual actions
that happened in the past
Cuando era niño, las clases empezaban a las 5 de la
tarde.
Cultura
Cultura en repaso-
ARTISTAS LATINOAMERICANOS
Realidades 3 página 71
Carlos
Enriquez
Carlos Enríquez, el controvertido artista
cubano del pincel
Por Noel Martínez
Considerado como uno de los mejores
artistas de la plástica cubana de la primera
mitad del pasado siglo, Carlos Enríquez fue
sin duda un rebelde del pincel.
Nacido el 3 de agosto de 1900 en la
localidad de Zulueta, en la antigua provincia
de Las Villas, se destacó como nadie de su
tiempo en llevar al lienzo la belleza del
cuerpo femenino, razón por la que fue
criticado y reprimido por una burguesía
conspicua e hipócrita.
Pintor de grandes cualidades naturales,
Carlos Enríquez recibió un solo
entrenamiento académico, en un breve
curso en la Pensnsylvania Academy,
regresando a Cuba en 1925 acompañado
por Alice Neel, con quien se casó.
Dos años después de retornar, dos de sus
desnudos femeninos fueron retirados de la
Exposición de Arte Nuevo bajo la acusación
de “ un realismo exagerado ”, represión que
se repite poco después y que lo empuja a
salir de nuevo hacia el extranjero.
Europa y su influencia en la obra
pictórica de Carlos Enríquez
En la búsqueda de nuevos horizontes
creativos, Carlos Enríquez viajó a España y
Francia, países donde la proximidad a las
vanguardias influyó de manera positiva en
su obra.
Acerca de esa etapa en el Viejo Continente,
el famoso novelista Alejo Carpentier
aseguró que le despojó de toda su
potencialidad de escándalo y según los
críticos fue ese el momento artístico donde
Carlos Enríquez pintó sus mejores cuadros,
entre ellos Primavera bacteriológica,
Crimen en el aire con Guardia Civil y su
Virgen del Cobre, obra donde el tópico
afrocubano asume un sincretismo religioso,
símbolo del mestizaje antillano que se
contrapone a la imagen tradicional de la
Patrona de Cuba, dado por el cristianismo.
De regreso a La Habana en 1934, la
represión vuelve a sacar su mano oscura e
impide una exposición de las obras en su
etapa europea.
El romancero guajiro de Carlos Enríquez
Radicado definitivamente en Cuba, en 1935
Carlos Enríquez comienza a definir sus
nuevas orientaciones plásticas, las que
apuntaron al mundo rural de los cubanos,
etapa que identificó como“ el romancero
guajiro ”.
Sin abandonar el erotismo y la anatomía
femenina, sus cuadros recogen las
leyendas del campo, la imagen de héroes y
bandidos, el recuerdo de los patriotas y una
fina denuncia social.
En esa época vieron la luz obras
antológicas de la plástica criolla: Rey de los
Campos de Cuba, Las bañistas de la
laguna, El rapto de las mulatas,
Campesinos felices, Dos Ríos y
Combate, imágenes que lo ubican a la
vanguardia del modernismo cubano.
Ciento un año después de su nacimiento,
ocurrido el 3 de agosto de 1 900, hoy sus
cuadros forman parte de la memoria
histórica de la nación, recordando desde las
paredes del Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes
el triste pasado de Cuba.
-
Oswaldo Guayasamín
Oswaldo Guayasamín (6 de julio de
1919 en Quito; 10 de marzo de 1999 en Baltimore)
fue un destacado pintor ecuatoriano.
Biografía
El padre de Oswaldo Guayasamín era un indígena de
ascendencia kichwa y su madre (Dolores Calero) era
mestiza. Su padre (José Miguel Guayasamín)
trabajaba como carpintero y, más tarde, como taxista
y camionero. Oswaldo fue el primero de diez hijos.
Su aptitud artística despierta a temprana edad. Antes
de los ocho años, hace caricaturas de los maestros y
compañeros de la escuela. Todas las semanas
renueva los anuncios de la tienda abierta por su
madre. También vende algunos cuadros hechos
sobre trozos de lienzo y cartón, con paisajes y
retratos de estrellas de cine, en la Plaza de la
Independencia.
A pesar de la oposición de su padre, ingresa a la
Escuela de Bellas Artes de Quito. Es la época de la
"guerra de los cuatro días", un levantamiento cívico
militar, en contra del gobierno de Arroyo del Río.
Durante una manifestación, muere su gran amigo
Manjarrés. Este acontecimiento, que más tarde
inspirará su obra "Los niños muertos", marca su
visión de la gente y de la sociedad. Continúa sus
estudios en la Escuela y en 1941 obtiene el diploma
de pintor y escultor, tras haber seguido también
estudios de arquitectura.
En 1942 expone por primera vez a la edad de 23
años en una sala particular de Quito y provoca un
escándalo. La crítica considera esta muestra como un
enfrentamiento con la exposición oficial de la
Escuela de Bellas Artes. Nelson Rockefeller ,
impresionado por la obra, compra varios cuadros y
ayuda a Guayasamín en el futuro. Entre 1942 y 1943
permanece seis meses en EEUU. Con el dinero
ganado, viaja a México, en donde conoce al maestro
Orozco, quien acepta a Guayasamín como asistente.
También entabla amistad con Pablo Neruda y un año
después viaja por diversos países de América Latina,
entre ellos Perú, Brasil, Chile, Argentina y Uruguay,
encontrando en todos ellos una sociedad indígena
oprimida, temática que, desde entonces, aparece
siempre en sus obras. En sus pinturas posteriores
figurativas trata temas sociales, actuó simplificando
las formas. Obtuvo en su juventud todos los Premios
Nacionales y fue acreedor, a los 36 años, del Gran
Premio en la III Bienal Hispanoamericana de Arte,
que se llevó a cabo en 1955 en Barcelona1 y más
tarde del Gran Premio de la Bienal de Sao Paulo.
Es elegido presidente de la Casa de la Cultura
Ecuatoriana en 1971 . Sus obras han sido expuestas
en las mejores galerías del mundo: Venezuela,
Francia, México, Cuba, Italia, España, EE. UU.,
Brasil, Colombia, Unión Soviética, China, entre
otros. En 1976 crea la Fundación Guayasamín, en
Quito, a la que dona su obra y sus colecciones de
arte, ya que concibe el arte como un patrimonio de
los pueblos.
En 1978 es nombrado miembro de la Real Academia
de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, de España, y un
año después, miembro de honor de la Academia de
Artes de Italia.
En 1982 se inaugura en el Aeropuerto de Barajas un
mural de 120 metros pintado por Guayasamín. Ese
gran mural, elaborado con acrílicos y polvo de
mármol, está dividido en dos partes: una de ellas
dedicada a España y la otra a Hispanoamérica.
El 28 de octubre de 1992 recibe el título de Doctor
Honoris Causa por parte de la Facultad de
Arquitectura y Artes de la Universidad Nacional
Pedro Henríquez Ureña (UNPHU).
Sus últimas exposiciones las inauguró
personalmente en el Museo del Palacio de
Luxemburgo, París y en el Museo Palais de Glace en
Buenos Aires, en 1995 . Logró exponer en museos
de la totalidad de las capitales de América, y muchos
países de Europa, como en San Petersburgo
(Hermitage), Moscú, Praga, Roma, Madrid,
Barcelona y Varsovia.
Realizó unas 48 exposiciones individuales y su
producción fue muy fructífera en pinturas de
caballete, murales, esculturas y monumentos. Tiene
murales en Quito (Palacios de Gobierno y
Legislativo, Universidad Central, Consejo
Provincial); Madrid (Aeropuerto de Barajas); París
(Sede de UNESCO); Sao Paulo (Parlamento
Latinoamericano en el Memorial de América
Latina); Caracas (Centro Simón Bolívar). Entre sus
monumentos se destacan "A la Patria Joven"
(Guayaquil, Ecuador); "A La Resistencia"
(Rumiñahui) en Quito.
Su obra humanista, señalada como expresionista,
refleja el dolor y la miseria que soporta la mayor
parte de la humanidad y denuncia la violencia que le
ha tocado vivir al ser humano en este monstruoso
Siglo XX marcado por las guerras mundiales, las
guerras civiles, los genocidios, los campos de
concentración, las dictaduras, las torturas.
Guayasamín fue amigo personal de importantes
personajes del mundo, y ha retratado a algunos de
ellos, como Fidel Castro y Raúl Castro, François y
Danielle Mitterrand, Gabriel García Márquez,
Rigoberta Menchú, el rey Juan Carlos de España, la
princesa Carolina de Mónaco, entre otros.
Recibió varias condecoraciones oficiales y
doctorados Honoris Causa de universidades de
América y Europa. En 1992 recibe el premio
Eugenio Espejo, máximo galardón cultural que
otorga el gobierno de Ecuador.
A partir de 1995 inició en Quito su obra más
importante, el espacio arquitectónico denominado
"La Capilla del Hombre", a la cuál le dedica todo su
esfuerzo. Falleció el 10 de marzo de 1999, en
Baltimore (Estados Unidos), aún sin ver finalizado
este proyecto.
Ese mismo año se reconoció su labor, de forma
póstuma, con: el reconocimiento como "Pintor de
Iberoamérica", el Premio Internacional José Martí.2 .
Resumen de su obra pictórica
Huacayñan:: Es la primera gran serie pictórica o
etapa. Es una palabra kichwa que significa “El
Camino del Llanto”. Es una serie de 103 cuadros
pintados después de recorrer durante 2 años por toda
Latinoamérica.
La Edad de la Ira: Esta es la segunda gran serie
pictórica o etapa. La temática fundamental de esta
serie son las guerras y la violencia, lo que el hombre
hace en contra del hombre
Mientras vivo siempre te recuerdo: es la tercera
gran serie o etapa, también conocida como “La Edad
de la Ternura”, es una serie que Guayasamín dedica
a su madre y las madres del mundo; y en cuyos
cuadros podemos apreciar colores más vivos que
reflejan el amor y la ternura entre madres e hijos, y
la inocencia de los niños.
Diego Rivera
Diego Rivera en 1932.
Nombre
Diego María de la Concepción Juan
completo
Nepomuceno Estanislao de Rivera y
Barrientos Acosta y Rodríguez
Nacimiento
8 de diciembre de 1886
Guanajuato
Fallecimiento
24 de noviembre de 1957 (70 años)
Ciudad de México
Nacionalidad
Área
mexicana
Pintor, muralista
Diego María Rivera (Guanajuato, 8 de diciembre de 1886 — Ciudad de México, 24 de
noviembre de 1957)1 fue un destacado muralista mexicano de ideología comunista, famoso por
plasmar obras de alto contenido social en edificios públicos. Fue creador de diversos murales en
distintos puntos del centro histórico de la Ciudad de México, así como en la Escuela Nacional de
Agricultura de Chapingo,2 y en otras ciudades mexicanas como Cuernavaca y Acapulco, así
también algunas otras del extranjero como San Francisco, Detroit y Nueva York.

Biografía
Mural en Acapulco, realizado por Diego Rivera.
Primeros años y vida en México
Su padre fue Diego Rivera y su madre María del Pilar Barrientos,3 nació el 8 de diciembre de
1886 en la ciudad de Guanajuato, al año y medio de nacido moriría su hermano gemelo Carlos
María.3 1 4 Diego fue registrado bajo el nombre de Diego María Rivera y bautizado como Diego
María de la Concepción Juan Nepomuceno Estanislao de Rivera y Barrientos Acosta y
Rodríguez.3 A partir de 1896 comenzó a tomar clases nocturnas en la Academia de San Carlos de
la capital mexicana, donde conoció al célebre paisajista José María Velasco. En 1905 recibió una
pensión del Secretario de Educación, Justo Sierra y en 1907 recibió otra del entonces gobernador
de Veracruz, Teodoro A. Dehesa Méndez, que le permite viajar a España a hacer estudios de
obras como las de Goya, El Greco y Brueghel;5 e ingresar al taller de Eduardo Chicharro en
Madrid.
En 1909 se trasladó a París donde conoció a Angelina Petrovna Belova, mejor conocida como
Angelina Beloff, pintora Rusa con quien inició una corta relación amorosa. A diferencia de José
Clemente Orozco, que fue un artista afiliado al Ejército Constitucionalista, específicamente con
el general Álvaro Obregón y de David Alfaro Siqueiros, que era oficial de alto rango, Diego
Rivera no tuvo una participación directa en el conflicto político y militar de la Revolución
Mexicana.[cita requerida]
A partir de entonces y hasta mediados 1916 alternó su residencia entre México, Ecuador,
Bolivia, Argentina, España y Francia, país en el cual tuvo los primeros contactos con los artistas
de Montparnasse. Tuvo acercamientos con Alfonso Reyes Ochoa, Pablo Picasso y Ramón María
del Valle-Inclán y en general con aquellos que participaron en las nuevas corrientes que en
Europa existían como el cubismo. Ese mismo año, en París, nació su primer hijo llamado Diego,
fruto de su unión con la pintora Angelina Beloff; sin embargo, el niño murió al año siguiente. En
1917, influido por las pinturas de Paul Cézanne, se introdujo en el postimpresionismo, logrando
captar la atención con sus acabados y vivos colores, a diferencia de otros muralistas mexicanos
que aún no cobraban popularidad.
Mural de Rivera mostrando la vida de los aztecas en el mercado de Tlatelolco. Palacio Nacional de
Ciudad de México.
En 1919 nació una hija con Marievna Vorobieva-Stebelska, Marika Rivera y Vorobieva, a la que
nunca reconocería pero sí sostendría económicamente. Hacia el año de 1920, y gracias al
entonces embajador de México en Francia, Alberto J. Pani, Rivera abandonó el país y emprendió
un viaje a Italia, donde comenzó el estudio del arte renacentista. Cuando Álvaro Obregón
designó a José Vasconcelos como secretario de educación, Diego Rivera regresó a México para
participar en las campañas emprendidas por Vasconcelos y en las cuales participó también con
los muralistas mexicanos José Clemente Orozco, David Alfaro Siqueiros y Rufino Tamayo, así
como con el artista francés Jean Charlot.
En enero de 1922, comenzó a pintar su primer mural, en el Anfiteatro Simón Bolívar de la
escuela Preparatoria Nacional. La pintura de Rivera comienza a convertirse en un factor
considerable y de influencia para el Movimiento Muralista Mexicano y Latinoamericano. En
diciembre de ese mismo año se casó con Guadalupe Marín, también conocida como la "Gata
Marín", quien le fue presentada por Julio Torri mientras hacía el mural del Anfiteatro Bolívar en
la Universidad Nacional.7 Era una indígena mexicana de piel morena, larga cabellera negra y
ojos verdes.
Con ella tuvo dos hijas: Lupe, nacida en 1925 y Ruth, nacida en 1926. En septiembre de 1922
inició el fresco en la Secretaría de Educación Pública. Se convirtió también en el co-fundador de
la Unión de Pintores, Escultores y Artistas Gráficos Revolucionarios. Para ese mismo año, se da
uno de los acontecimientos que marcaría gran parte de la vida de Diego, su anexión al Partido
Comunista Mexicano, uno de los grandes factores influyentes dentro de su pintura. También se le
otorgaron los permisos necesarios para comenzar con las pinturas y murales del Palacio de
Cortés en Cuernavaca y en la Escuela Nacional de Agricultura, en Chapingo, así como en el
Palacio Nacional de la Ciudad de México, donde de 1929 a 1935 creó un ciclo narrativo sobre la
historia del país desde los tiempos de los aztecas hasta el siglo XX.
[editar] Vida en el extranjero
Diego Rivera con Frida Kahlo, su tercera esposa.
El hombre en el cruce de caminos (1934).
Hacia 1927, Rivera fue invitado a los festejos de los primeros diez años de la Revolución de
Octubre en la Unión Soviética, por lo que parte hacia la Ciudad Rusa de Moscú. Tras su divorcio
con Guadalupe Marín en 1928, contrajo terceras nupcias con la pintora Frida Kahlo en el año de
1929. Igualmente, este mismo año, fue expulsado del Partido Comunista Mexicano. Hacia 1930,
fue invitado a los Estados Unidos para la realización de diversas obras, donde su temática
comunista desataría importantes contradicciones, críticas y fricciones con los propietarios, el
gobierno y la prensa estadounidense.
Las más destacadas pinturas de Rivera en aquel país se encuentran en el San Francisco Art
Institute -Escuela de Arte de San Francisco- así como en el Instituto de Artes de Detroit.
Hacia 1933, se da uno de los sucesos más controvertidos en su vida. Cuando el industrial John D.
Rockefeller Jr. contrata a Rivera para pintar un mural en el vestíbulo de entrada o "lobby" del
edificio RCA en la ciudad de Nueva York. Este era el edificio principal de un conjunto de
construcciones que se habría de denominar como Rockefeller Center.
El edificio, situado en Fifth Avenue, una de las avenidas más famosas, se posicionaba como uno
de los emblemas más importantes del capitalismo. Diego Rivera, diseñó para esta ocasión, el
mural denominado El hombre en el cruce de caminos o El hombre controlador del universo.
Pero cuando Rivera se encontraba a punto de completarlo, incluyó un retrato de Lenin. La
reacción de la prensa y la controversia que suscitó el retrato de Lenin, fue inmediata y vocífera.
Rockefeller, vio el retrato como insulto personal y mandó cubrir el mural y más tarde ordenó que
fuera destruido. Rivera poco después regresó a México en 1934, donde pintó el mismo mural El
hombre en el cruce de caminos" en el tercer piso del Palacio de Bellas Artes de México.8
Monumento a Diego Rivera en la Plaza de San Jacinto en San Ángel.
Sepulcro de Diego Rivera en la Rotonda de las Personas Ilustres.
En 1936 solicita al presidente Lázaro Cárdenas del Río, el asilo político de León Trotsky en
México que se concreta el año siguiente, recibiéndolo en la Casa Azul de Frida Kahlo. Para 1940
ya se había distanciado del célebre disidente ruso y se había divorciado de Frida Kahlo,
volviéndose a casar con ella a finales de ese año. En 1943 fue miembro fundador de El Colegio
Nacional.9
Hacia 1946, pintó una de sus obras más importantes, Sueño de una tarde dominical en la
Alameda Central en el entonces recién construido Hotel del Prado de la Ciudad de México.
También integra junto con José Clemente Orozco y David Alfaro Siqueiros, la comisión de
Pintura Mural del Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes.8
En 1950 ilustró Canto General de Pablo Neruda y ganó el Premio Nacional de Ciencias y Artes
de México.10 En 1952 realizó el mural denominado "La Universidad, la familia mexicana, la paz
y la juventud deportista" del Estadio Olímpico Universitario (UNAM), en la ciudad de México y
en 1955 ante la muerte de Frida Kahlo en junio del año anterior, se casó con Emma Hurtado y
viajó a la Unión Soviética para ser intervenido quirúrgicamente. Falleció el 24 de noviembre de
1957 en San Ángel, Ciudad de México en su casa estudio, actualmente conocida como Museo
Casa Estudio Diego Rivera y Frida Kahlo y sus restos fueron colocados en la Rotonda de las
Personas Ilustres, contraviniendo su última voluntad.11 En el Mural que se encuentra en el cubo
de las escaleras del Palacio Nacional, Diego Rivera pintó a sus esposas y amigos. Cristina Kahlo,
hermana menor de Frida -y aparentemente amante de Diego- se encuentra pintada a un lado de
Frida Kahlo. Igualmente hizo una pintura de su gran amiga María Cecilia Armida Baz (Machila)
a quien le decía Machilxóchitl.
En 1953 el muralista Diego Rivera creó una de sus más grandes obras, se encuentra en el Teatro
de los Insurgentes12 en la Ciudad de México, dicha obra tiene un gran significado histórico, cada
una de las imágenes representan parte de la historia de México. El mural esta hecho de teselas de
vidrio esmaltadas sobre placas de la marca Mosaicos Venecianos,13 la colocación estuvo a cargo
del maestro Luigi Scodeller.
En un primer plano encontramos el teatro, representado por el antifaz y las manos en mitones,
con el día y la noche como símbolo de la dualidad. Detrás de este símbolo se encuentra un
escenario donde al centro se representa a Mario Moreno Cantinflas, un comediante popular
mexicano, éste personaje se encuentra recibiendo dinero de las clases pudientes de la sociedad
mexicana representadas por capitalistas, militares, el clérigo y una cortesana, y repartiéndolo a
los pobres que se encuentran de su lado izquierdo representando a las clases desprotegidas.
Detrás de dicho escenario se encuentra la antigua Basílica de Guadalupe.
De lado izquierdo del mural se encuentra en repetidas ocasiones las imágenes de Maximiliano y
Carlota, y junto a ellos personajes de la historia mexicana como Benito Juárez, el cura Miguel
Hidalgo, José María Morelos y Pavón, Hernán Cortes, y Juan Ruiz de Alarcón, dichos personajes
se encuentran mezclados con personajes típicos de las pastorelas mexicanas como los son el
Diablo y el Arcángel. Del lado izquierdo en la parte baja se encuentran las imágenes de músicos
populares representantes de la cultura mexicana y una pareja bailando el jarabe tapatío. Del lado
contrario, se encuentra una mezcla de escenas de la revolución mexicana y de la época
prehispánica, representadas por músicos, sacerdotes y un jaguar. Sin duda es una de las obras
más representativas de la historia de México, y del arte del muralista Diego Rivera.
Coyoacán,
México, 1907-id.,
1954)
Pintora mexicana. Aunque se movió en
el ambiente de los grandes muralistas
mexicanos de su tiempo y compartió
sus ideales, Frida Kahlo creó una
pintura
absolutamente
personal,
ingenua y profundamente metafórica al
mismo tiempo, derivada de su exaltada
sensibilidad y de varios acontecimientos
que marcaron su vida.
Frida Kahlo
A los dieciocho años Frida Kahlo sufrió
un gravísimo accidente que la obligó a
una larga convalecencia, durante la
cual aprendió a pintar, y que influyó
con toda probabilidad en la formación
del complejo mundo psicológico que se
refleja
en
sus
obras.
Contrajo
matrimonio con el muralista Diego
Rivera, sus obras más valoradas: Henry
Ford
Hospital,
cuya
compleja
simbología
se
conoce
por
las
explicaciones de la propia pintora.
También son muy apreciados sus
autorretratos, así mismo de compleja
interpretación: Autorretrato con monos,
Las dos Fridas.
Cuando André Breton conoció la obra
de Frida Kahlo dijo que era una
surrealista espontánea y la invitó a
exponer en Nueva York y París, ciudad
esta última en la que no tuvo una gran
acogida. Nunca se sintió cerca del
surrealismo, y al final de sus días
decidió que esa tendencia no se
correspondía con su creación artística.
Autorretrato de Frida Kahlo
En su búsqueda de las raíces estéticas
de
México,
Frida
Kahlo
realizó
espléndidos retratos de niños y obras
inspiradas en la iconografía mexicana
anterior a la conquista, pero son las
telas que se centran en ella misma y en
su azarosa vida las que la han
convertido en una figura destacada de
la pintura mexicana del siglo XX.
Alfonso Fernande
Alfonso Fernández en Galería
de Arte Patricia Ready /
Homenaje a la Familia
Expositor: Alfonso Fernández
Lugar: Galería de Arte Patricia
Ready (Av. La Dehesa 2035,
esquina El Rodeo – Lo Barnechea)
Técnica:
escultura,
grabado,
pintura,
técnica
mixta
Fecha : 7 de septiembre al 15 de
octubre
2005
Horario: lunes a viernes 10:30 a
20:00,
sábado:
10:30
a
14:00
hrs.
Entrada: liberada
La nueva obra que nos trae Alfonso Fernández
traza un camino ya iniciado que apunta hacia la
introspección y la intimidad, la cual va más allá de
la superficie. Esta renovada óptica surge a partir
de un gran mural que el artista elaboró en gres
cerámico y fierro, cuyo tema es la familia. Desde
entonces, su investigación amplió su espectro
hacia la escultura, en forma simultánea a las
disciplinas tradicionales.
Pintura, pastel, acrílico y óleo
sobre tela, dibujo al carbón sobre
papel en formato grande y
mediano, esculturas en gres
cerámico y metal, abordan este
ámbito vinculado a la energía y
calidez del hogar. También nos
presenta una serie de grabados
realizados con punta seca junto a dibujos con tinta
china, acuarela, grafito, carbón, pastel y acrílico en
pequeño formato, que se constituyen en los
estudios acerca del homenaje a la familia,
completando así los distintos pasos que originaron
este tema relacionado con los afectos y el espacio
interior.
Figuras entrelazadas que afloran de lo subjetivo y
paisajes que aluden al entorno que le rodea, son
parte de este nuevo modo de expresión que el
artista desarrolla.
El libro sobre su obra y
parte de esta muestra se
exhibirá también en la
Universidad de San Louis,
Missouri y la Universidad de
Kentucky,
Lexington,
EE.UU.
Además
Alfonso
Fernández realizará una
pasantía como artista en
residencia en estas dos instituciones, a
contar de la última semana de Enero del
año 2006, participando del segundo
semestre académico norteamericano.
Textos libro Alfonso Fernández
Alfonso Fernández A. : Vivencias e
imágenes.
En el taller es donde se arma todo.
Alfonso Fernández no tiene tan claro
como se da este proceso, pero es una
mezcla entre sus vivencias, lo que ve en
la calle y la manera como se conecta
emocionalmente con ciertas imágenes
que le resultan significativas. Ahí es
donde surge el código de entrada de las
figuras, que toman forma y adquieren
sentido en su obra. Porque aquello que
fluye en su trabajo artístico, recrea una
experiencia vivida. De ahí que, cuando se
observan las obras del artista, se percibe
que detrás de cada imagen hay una
verdad en la que, como espectadores,
nos sentimos capturados.
Alfonso fernandez
REFERENCIAS BIOGRAFICAS
Artista visual chileno, grabador y
pintor. Inició sus estudios artísticos en
1987 en el taller de dibujo y pintura del
profesor César Osorio de la Universidad
de Chile en Santiago. Aprendió técnicas
de grabado al intaglio, litografía,
fotograbado y serigrafía en el Taller 99
de Santiago. En 1993 participó en e
lTaller Internacional del Tamarind
Institute de la Universidad de Nuevo
México (Aburquerque) Estados Unidos y
fue invitado por el Departamento de
Grabado de la Facultad de Bellas Artes
de la misma casa de estudios donde
integró el Programa de Entrenamiento
en Litografía hasta el año 1995
Las técnicas utilizadas en distintas
etapas creativas partieron por el
grabado, continuando con la pintura y
luego una combinación de ambas,
logrando efectos de gran expresividad,
como tintas sobre planchas de zinc y de
cobre, raspando, martillando y
taladrando el soporte.
Para Alfonso Fernández su búsqueda
estética lo ha conducido al dominio de
la técnica hasta configurar una
personalidad pictórica propia,
observándose una suerte de
complementación entre la gráfica del
grabado y el color del pigmento, en
busca de una armonía entre ambas. Su
oficio ha estado marcado por una
actitud rupturista e inquieta que lo
identifica con una personalidad en
extremo exigente.
En el 2000 fue invitado a trabajar con
el artista visual Sam Gilliam, en
Washington, D.C. Estados Unidos.
Durante una estadía en el Zygote Press
en Cleveland, Ohio, tomó contacto con
sus pares, contrastando tendencias.
Diego Rodriguez de Silva y Velazquez
(1599-1660)
Diego Velázquez
Velázquez se autorretrató en 1656 en su cuadro más emblemático, Las
Meninas. Se representó pintando. En las mangas de su vestido y en su
mano derecha se aprecia su estilo final rápido y abocetado. En su paleta
distinguimos los pocos colores que utilizaba en sus pinturas. La cruz de
la Orden de Santiago que lleva en su pecho fue añadida al cuadro
posteriormente.
Diego Rodríguez de Silva y Velázquez (Sevilla, hacia el 5 de junio de
15991 – Madrid, 6 de agosto de 1660), conocido como Diego
Velázquez, fue un pintor barroco, considerado uno de los máximos
exponentes de la pintura española y maestro de la pintura universal.
Pasó sus primeros años en Sevilla, donde desarrolló un estilo naturalista
de iluminación tenebrista, por influencia de Caravaggio y sus
seguidores. A los 24 años se trasladó a Madrid, donde fue nombrado
pintor del rey Felipe IV y cuatro años después fue ascendido a pintor de
cámara, el cargo más importante entre los pintores de la corte. A esta
labor dedicó el resto de su vida. Su trabajo consistía en pintar retratos
del rey y de su familia, así como otros cuadros destinados a decorar las
mansiones reales. La presencia en la corte le permitió estudiar la
colección real de pintura que, junto con las enseñanzas de su primer
viaje a Italia, donde conoció tanto la pintura antigua como la que se
hacía en su tiempo, fueron influencias determinantes para evolucionar a
un estilo de gran luminosidad, con pinceladas rápidas y sueltas. En su
madurez, a partir de 1631, pintó de esta forma grandes obras como La
rendición de Breda. En su última década su estilo se hizo más
esquemático y abocetado alcanzando un dominio extraordinario de la
luz. Este periodo se inauguró con el Retrato del papa Inocencio X,
pintado en su segundo viaje a Italia, y a él pertenecen sus dos últimas
obras maestras: Las Meninas y Las hilanderas.
Su catálogo consta de unas 120 o 125 obras. El reconocimiento como
pintor universal se produjo tardíamente, hacia 1850.2 Alcanzó su
máxima fama entre 1880 y 1920, coincidiendo con los pintores
impresionistas franceses, para los que fue un referente. Manet se sintió
maravillado con su pintura y lo calificó como «pintor de pintores» y «el
más grande pintor que jamás ha existido». La parte fundamental de sus
cuadros que integraban la colección real se conserva en el Museo del
Prado en Madrid.
Francisco de Goya
.
Francisco de Goya y Lucientes (Fuendetodos,
provincia de Zaragoza, 30 de marzo de 1746 – Burdeos, Francia, 16 de
abril de 1828),1 fue un pintor y grabador español. Su obra abarca la
pintura de caballete y mural, el grabado y el dibujo. En todas estas
facetas desarrolló un estilo que inaugura el Romanticismo. El arte
goyesco supone, asimismo, el comienzo de la Pintura contemporánea, y
se considera precursor de las vanguardias pictóricas del siglo XX.
Tras un lento aprendizaje en su tierra natal, en el ámbito estilístico del
barroco tardío y las estampas devotas, viaja a Italia en 1770, donde traba
contacto con el incipiente neoclasicismo, que adopta cuando marcha a
Madrid a mediados de esa década, junto con un pintoresquismo
costumbrista rococó derivado de su nuevo trabajo como pintor de
cartones para los tapices de la manufactura real de Santa Bárbara. El
magisterio en esta actividad y en otras relacionadas con la pintura de
corte lo imponía Mengs, y el pintor español más reputado era Francisco
Bayeu, que fue cuñado de Goya.
Una grave enfermedad que le aqueja en 1793 le lleva a acercarse a una
pintura más creativa y original, que expresa temáticas menos amables
que los modelos que había pintado para la decoración de los palacios
reales. Una serie de cuadritos en hojalata, a los que él mismo denomina
de capricho e invención, inician la fase madura de la obra del artista y la
transición hacia la estética romántica.
Además, su obra refleja el convulso periodo histórico en que vive,
particularmente la Guerra de la Independencia, de la que la serie de
estampas de Los desastres de la guerra es casi un reportaje moderno de
las atrocidades cometidas y componen una visión exenta de heroísmo
donde las víctimas son siempre los individuos de cualquier clase y
condición.
Gran popularidad tiene su Maja desnuda, en parte favorecida por la
polémica generada en torno a la identidad de la bella retratada. De
comienzos del siglo XIX datan también otros retratos que emprenden el
camino hacia el nuevo arte burgués. Al final del conflicto hispanofrancés pinta dos grandes cuadros a propósito de los sucesos del
levantamiento del dos de mayo de 1808, que sientan un precedente tanto
estético como temático para el cuadro de historia, que no solo comenta
sucesos próximos a la realidad que vive el artista, sino que alcanza un
mensaje universal.
Pero su obra culminante es la serie de pinturas al óleo sobre el muro
seco con que decoró su casa de campo (la Quinta del Sordo), las
Pinturas negras. En ellas Goya anticipa la pintura contemporánea y los
variados movimientos de vanguardia que marcarían el siglo XX.
Joan Miró
Mini-lección 12-15
minutos en casa
Home Journal!
En el cuaderno en casa.
1. Realiadades 3 página 88
Actividad 32 para el 5 de
marzo 2013
2. Página 89 actividad 34
3. Página 90 actividad 36
Estudien Uds.-los artistas
En hoja libre título completo
TAREA
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