Important Events by Century
By: A great student from the class of 2010
15th Century- 1400
 Medici Family
 Printing press
 Sack of Constantinople
o Losing Constantinople as the capitol of the Byzantine Empire causes
the Turks to become the prime threat to Christian Europe.
Intellectuals from Greece move West bringing their intellectual
movements with them, in addition to classical documents, inspiring
the Renaissance in Italy.
 End of the Hundred Years War (France and England)
o End of the war changes military tactics, increases secular power,
Leads to the War of the Roses, and generally enables both France and
England to develop into exceedingly powerful countries. The Balance
of Power changes because in order to fight these kinds of big wars the
system of Monarchy increases as a way to effectively govern countries
and the power of the Church declines greatly. This war also increases
nationalism because the definition of who is French and who is
English is defined as they fight for their native country.
 Peace of Lodi (balance of power between Italian city states)
 The War of the Roses (England)
 Exploration
 France invades Italy in 1494 ending the Peace of Lodi
 Treaty of Tordesillas 1494
 Marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella
 Humanism (some)
 Renaissance
o Early: Masaccio, Botticelli, Donatello, Brunelleschi
o High: da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo
16th Century- 1500
 The Price Revolution
o Possible causes of this inflation were increased population and the
flow of silver from the Americas causing increased available spending
money. The Price Revolution caused farmers to seek to increase
output (led to the enclosure system in England and a return to
serfdom in Eastern Europe). Trade and industry also grew
everywhere and the putting-out system appeared.
 Humanism
o Machiavelli, Valla, Petrarch, Castiglione, Bruni, Alberti
 Renaissance (Northern Renaissance)
o Van Eyck, Durer
 Concordat of Bologna (France 1516)
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o Lessen’s the Pope’s influence in France and increases Francis I’s
influence on the general people through his clerical appointments.
Protestant Reformation
More exploration
Sack of Rome
o Spanish commander “lost control of troops”, has enormous symbolism
for the decline of the Papacy and signifies Spain’s power through their
control of Rome, ends the Italian Renaissance. Significant especially in
England where the new power of the Holy Roman Emperor (at this
point the same as the power of Spain) over the pope means that the
pope will not grant an annulment to Henry VIII because Catherine of
Aragon is the Holy Roman Emperor’s Aunt. The refusal to grant the
annulment causes Henry VIII to eventually leave the Catholic Church
and become the head of a new Anglican Church in order to marry
Anne Boleyn.
German Peasants Revolt 1524
o Peasants had been inspired to revolt by the combination of their
economic burden and the belief stated by Luther that Christians are
subject to no one. However, Luther completely supported the
repression of the revolt (leading to nearly 100,000 deaths) and
showed that Lutheranism felt the power of the state over the power of
religion and would follow the interests of the Princes rather than the
peasants.
English Reformation
Charles V
Henry VIII
Formation of the Schmalkaldic League
o This league would prevent the bullying of any member of the League
back to Catholicism. It also shows the declining authority of the Holy
Roman Emperor with an alliance formed within the German Princes
against him
Schmalkaldic Wars
o Takes away power from the Holy Roman Emperor, shows
decentralization of the HRE and the growth of Protestantism in the
region
o Ends with the Peace of Augsburg
 Significant because Lutheranism gains legitimacy in the eyes of
the Holy Roman Empire. Though the ruler could choose the
religion of the nation, citizens could not. Causes further
centralization. Does not provide for Calvinism and will
therefore cause the 30 Years War
Counter Reformation
Council of Trent
Elizabeth I
o Defeat of the Spanish Armada
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Revolts against the Spanish in the Netherlands
o Pacification of Ghent (northern and southern provinces were united
but they weren’t able to cooperate)
 French Wars of Religion
o Ends with the Edict of Nantes
 Grants religious toleration to Huguenots
o War of the Three Henries
 Henry of Navarre (now Henry IV) becomes a Huguenot King of
France but learns that his majority in Paris will not accept a
Protestant King and will eventually convert. Significant in the
continuation of struggle between Protestantism and
Catholicism
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17 Century- 1600
 Baroque period
o Caravaggio, Bernini, Rembrandt, Vermeer, Velasquez
 Commercial capitalism/joint stock companies
o British East India Company is established
o Dutch East India Company
 Scientific revolution
 End of the Revolt of the Netherlands—independence for the Northern Dutch
Provinces
 Cardinal Richelieu institutes the entendant system
 Rise of absolutism
 30 Years’ War
o Shows distinct change from religious wars to secular wars
o Standing armies
o Ends with the Treaty of Westphalia
 Includes Calvinism in 1555 Peace of Augsburg settlement,
official decline of Spain and disintegration of HRE, semiindependence of German states. Will usher in Absolutism to
France. Shakes up political system in Europe as a whole- new
order and separation of religion and politics (rise of
secularism)
 British Civil War
o Charles I tries to force the Anglican Church and the Book of Common
Prayer on Scottish Presbyterians and English Puritans. Civil war
erupts all around Great Britain and eventually ends with the execution
of Charles and victory for the parliamentary army. The overall
significance for England is a changed system of government with
significantly more power given to Parliament rather than to the
monarchy. This new balance of power within the English government
will remain in tact even after the monarchy is reinstated and the
Glorious Revolution occurs.
o Cromwell
o Glorious Revolution
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Edict of Fountainbleu
o Revoked the Edict of Nantes
o Shows more centralization under Louis XIV
o Shows a step Louis XIV takes that enables him to be one of the most
successful absolute monarchs. Part of the centralization of France
required that all citizens of France be of the same religion
 Glorious Revolution and Bill of Rights in England
o Significant because it shows the immense power Parliament holds
over William and Mary following the Glorious Revolution. The Bill of
Rights is also a predecessor of others of such documents and showed
an appreciation for Enlightenment Ideals that would be more
popularized in the 18th century.
 Great Northern War
o Shift of power from Sweden to Russia
18th Century- 1700s
 Rococo
o Watteau, Fragonard, Gainsborough, Reynolds
 Act of Settlement
o Ensures the throne for Protestants
o This means the throne will go to the Hanover dynasty after the death
of Queen Anne
 War of Spanish Succession
o BALANCE OF POWER. This war was all about balance of power.
Significant because those in favor of Philip of Anjou would lead to a
united France and Spain while the others (England, Netherlands,
Austria, German States) wanted Charles IV in order to maintain a
better balance.
o Ended with the Treaty of Utrecht
 Gives asiento to Great Britain (see below), ends the War of
Spanish Succession, Charles VI assumption of the title of Holy
Roman Emperor leads to end of his support for the Spanish
throne (that would cause even more messed up balance of
power), Philip of Anjou is allowed to stay on the throne but he
CAN’T combine Spain and France, some territory is also given
to Austria in the Netherlands and parts of Italy. This treaty
shows a big shift in the balance of power as power shifts
majorly from France to England and Prussia also increases in
power.
 Act of Union
o England and Scotland become Britain
 Pragmatic Sanction (HRE, Austria)
o Charles VI takes document around gets people to say that they will
accept Maria Theresa
o Not successful, as soon as Maria Theresa becomes ruler, Frederick II
invades Silesia
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War of Austrian Succession
o After violating the pragmatic sanction, Prussia fights for the Austrian
throne, shows extraordinary Prussian militarism
o Ends with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle
 All of Austria is restored except for Silesia—Austria isn’t
satisfied and Prussia wants more, sets up tensions for the
Seven Years War
Neoclassical Period (1750-1800)
o Jacques Louis David—“Oath of the Horatii” and “Death of Marat”
ENLIGHTENMENT
Seven Years War
o Significant Diplomatic Revolution as Kaunitz separates the former
allies, Prussia and France, and therefore allies Prussia with Great
Britain. France, Russia, Sweden, German States, Austria vs. GB,
Prussia, Portugal. Peter III removes Russia from the war and a
stalemate is reached on the European stage. England dominates the
global theater of the war showing that Great Britain has now become
the ultimate power. Also showed the expanse of the European
empires of England and France as they battled all over the world, in
Europe, North America, and India
o Ends with Treaty of Hubertusburg
 Ends the Seven Years War in Europe, Prussia keeps Silesia.
BOP changes as Prussia’s power increases
o Ends with the Treaty of Paris
 Ends the global part of the Seven Years War, makes the British
the supreme power in Europe and a huge trading power
throughout the world
Agricultural Revolution
Catherine the Great
o Legislative commission to reform the laws and improve them
 Was composed entirely of nobles
o Pugachev Revolt ends all hopes of Catherine being enlightened
o Basically a failure of an enlightenment person
o 1785 Charter of the Nobility
 Reverses enlightened policies and gives back privilege to the
nobles
Frederick the Great
o Changes administrative machine to be based on nobility rather than
merit
o Gets rid of torture and capital punishment
o Religious toleration for Christians
o Improves/creates education system
o Reforms law codes
Joseph II (and Maria Theresa)
o Edict on Idle Institution
Gets rid of monasteries and takes wealth from there and puts
into state funded charities
o Edict of Toleration
 Complete religious tolerance
o New legal code
o Gets rid of capital punishment
o 11,000 laws and 6000 decrees
o Abolished serfdom
Beginnings of capitalism
FRENCH REVOLUTION!
o Louis XVI called the Assembly of Notables—said they wouldn’t meet
until he called a meeting of the Estates General
o Estates General meets on May 5, 1789
o Third Estate breaks away and becomes the National Assembly
 Tennis Court Oath—the Third Estate swears they will not
separate until a new constitution had been written
 Revolution of Lawyers
 Goal of this phase was to make a new government and create a
constitution. Mainly consisted of the third estate (bourgeoisie
and some new nobles). This phase was moderate and
officially temporary. A constitution is created by the National
Assembly that provides for the later Legislative Assembly,
however none of the members of the National Assembly can
be in the Legislative assembly (significant because all new
people have to be elected and will be more radical)
o Louis XVI gathers 18,000 troops to help him assert his “divine right”
to rule and the Estates General disbands
o Storming of the Bastille—shows the collapse of royal authority
o Series of rural and urban uprisings against the king’s attempt to stifle
the National Assembly
o The “Great Fear”
 Storming of the Bastille had created the atmosphere and
motivation for peasants to revolt (burned houses and hoarded
grain). Members of the middle class then built citizen’s
militias and permanent committees across France to protect
property rights as a reaction to the actions of the peasants.
o National Assembly abolishes Feudalism
o NA adopts the Declaration of the Rights of Man
o Women storm Versailles
 King Louis XVI agreed to do what the women said and the
National Guard led the mob back to Paris with wagonloads of
flour from the palace stores. Also significant because upon
Louis’ return to Paris, he began a prisoner to the National
Assembly. He would remain alive for quite some time but his
power had basically been 100% toppled at this point.
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o Civil Constitution of the Clergy
 Clergy is subject to state laws, basically the state has power
over the church
 Clergy had to swear an oath of allegiance to the Constitution
o Constitution of 1791
 Made France a limited constitutional monarchy
 Participation still banned for the majority of the population
 Keeps the king
 Creates the Legislative Assembly
 Members of the NA can’t be members of the LA
o Legislative Assembly
 More radical
 Indirect elections
 Internal divisions with Jacobin and Mountain groups
o Louis XVI tries to flee to Varennes but is caught
o Declaration of Pillniz by Leo II of Austria and Frederick William II of
Prussia states that they were going to help the king because they
don’t want revolutionary ideas to spread
o France declares war against those who agreed with the Declaration of
Pillnitz
 Conservatives hoped that declaring war would cause an end to
the Revolution and liberals wanted war to consolidate the
Revolution at home and spread it around Europe. In the
beginning the French were not successful in fighting and were
further burdened by economic issues.
o Paris Commune suspends the Legislative Assembly
 Leads to the National Convention
o Universal male suffrage
o National Convention
 Led sans-culottes
 Most radical phase of the Revolution
 Louis is gone
 Includes the Reign of Terror and Committee of Public Safety
 More dechristianization
 New republican calendar
 Constitution of 1793
 Officially recognizes France as a republic
 Abolition of slavery
o Thermadorian Reaction
 Conservative reaction to the seemingly constant increase of
radicalism of the National Convention
 Leads to the 1795 Constitution and the Directory
o 1795 Constitution
 National Legislative Assembly
 Indirect elections with property requirement
 Directory (5 CEOs)
 Bill of Rights
o November 9, 1799 Coup of 18 Brumaire—Coup d’état of Napoleon
 New form of Republic is claimed with constitution with a
bicameral legislative assembly elected indirectly with three
consuls
o Napoleon becomes First Consul
 INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION HAD BEEN HAPPENING!
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19 Century- 1800s
 Concordat of 1801: Napoleon reconciles France with the Church to stabilize
his regime and make him more powerful
o Pope gets the right to depose French bishops
o Pope agrees not to question church land confiscated by the state
during the Revolution
 Napoleon crowns himself emperor
 Code of Napoleon is written and instituted
 State funded education system
 Bank of France is established
 Battle of Trafalgar
 Continental system
o Napoleon tries to cut Britain off from trade
o Orders in council: England banned trade with France for itself and its
allies
 1812 Napoleon decides to invade Russia
 Confederation of the Rhine
o Combines 16 German states
o Mainly a military alliance
 Battle of Paris: French defeat, forces Napoleon to abdicate as emperor
 Treaty of Fontainebleau
o Ended Napoleon’s rule and sent him to exile on Elba
o Napoleon was granted sovereignty over Elba
 Napoleon escapes for 100 days
 Battle of Waterloo: Napoleon’s FINAL defeat
 Congress of Vienna
o Restores BOP
o In order to do so, the Congress gave more power to certain countries
and added protective measures to make sure that no nation
(especially France) could become a world power again. Significant
results included forced reparations from France to the alliance and
the independence of a combined Austrian and independent
Netherlands. There is also an important emphasis on conservatism
and “insurance” that another powerhouse would not upset the oh-soimportant balance of power.
o Principal of legitimacy
o Restoration of monarchies
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Britain Corn Laws
o Peterloo Massacre
 Shows conservatism of the government and the conflict
between old landed interest and new manufacturing interests
Lots of revolts!
German States: burschenschaften burned symbols of authority
o Carlsbad Decrees are pushed through by Metternich to end seditious
activity by German liberals and nationalists
The Quadruple Alliance is formed at the Congress of Vienna and then is
turned into the Quintuple Alliance with the addition of France
Revolution in Italy
Revolution in Spain
Successful Revolution in Greece
o Ends with the Treaty Adrianople
 Russia gains influence and territory in Southeastern Europe
that causes tensions to erupt
Monroe Doctrine
Decembrist Uprising (Russia)
o Nicholas ascended the throne rather than Constantine and moderate
liberals got angry
July Revolution (France)
o Charles X issues the July Ordinances
 Suspends freedom of the press
 Appoints new, reactionary councilors
 Dissolves the Chamber of Deputies
 Ended lots of rights
 Led to revolution
o Revolution
 Charles X abdicates
 Louis Philippe (head of the Orleans family) takes over
 Known as the Bourgeois king because bankers and
businessmen control his government
Revolution in Italy and Germany in 1830
British Great Reform Bill of 1832 and Factory Acts
o Abolished slave trade throughout the empire
Great famine in Ireland
1848 Revolutions
o France: Louis Philippe abdicates and a provisional government
proclaims the Second French Republic
 June days: people freak out when factories are closed
o Italian States against Austria…gets crushed really quickly
o Magyars vs. Austrian Empire (Magyars want to be independent
Hungary), led by Kossuth
o Frankfurt Assembly (fails in part because Frederick William IV refuses
their offer of emperor)
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Serfdom ends in Austria
Louis Napoleon Bonaparte ends the Second French Republic and becomes
Emperor Napoleon III
Crimean War
o Caused by conflict in the middle east largely based on tensions
between the Russians and French over who was given control over
Christian sites in Palestine. Russians vs. British, French, and the
Ottoman Turks. Austria’s threat to enter the war caused the failing
Russians to accept peace terms. War did not settle tensions between
European powers. Influenced Tsar Alexander II to become more
industrialized in order to compete with the other European powers.
Also, caused Austria to rely on the help of Britain and France after
losing the support of Russia in foreign affairs. Britain and France
would not successfully support Austria leading to the ability of
Germany and Italy to centralize after defeating Austria forces.
o Ends with the Treaty of Paris
 Guaranteed the integrity of Ottoman Turkey, forced Russia to
surrender southern Bessarabia, neutralized the Black Sea,
Danube River was opened to trade for all nations
o Destroys concert of Europe
o Prevents Russia from helping Austria to stop German unification
Evolution
Alexander II emancipates Russian serfs
Italian centralization!
o Cavour makes an agreement with Napoleon that they are going to
have each other’s back
o Cavour gets the Austrians to invade Italy
o France makes a peace agreement with Austria behind Italy’s back
o Italy fails
o Round 2: Italy allies with Prussia = victory
o Garibaldi unifies the south
o Doesn’t get all the land they want until the Austro-Prussian war
o Victor Emmanuel becomes King
German Civil War
o BISMARCK
o Prussia and its allies vs. Austria and its allies
 The clash between Prussia and Austria initially begins over
conflicts in the Schleswig-Holstein region. Prussia’s victory
over Austria leads to the creation of the North German
Confederation excluding Austria. This is the first half of
Bismarck’s genius plans to unify many of the German States
with Prussia at the head. Bismarck tactfully pushes Austria
until Austria makes the first move to make war with Prussia
rather than Prussia beginning the conflict. He will continue to
use this tactic, among other pretty brilliant tactics, to succeed
in unifying Germany.
o Danish War precedes this
 Allows for joint administration of duchys between Prussia and
Austria—enables Prussia to easily provoke war later
o Franco-Prussian War
 Prussia aggravates France into declaring war. France
eventually loses the war and Alsace-Lorraine and the Prussians
make it all the way to Versailles where they will declare a
centralized Germany. BISMARCK IS THE MAN!
 Bismarck manipulates a letter
o Germany is centralized!
 Compromise of 1867 (Augsleich of 1867)
 Bismarck’s Alliance System
o Three Emperor’s League established (Germany, A-H, and Russia)
 The Third Republic (France)
o Two-house parliament with senate elected indirectly and a chamber
of deputies elected by universal male suffrage and a president who
served a seven year term
 The Congress of Berlin
o This congress was meant to destroy the San Stefano (Bulgaria had
been created) peace treaty. It was Bismarck’s reaction to the Russian
end of the Russo-Turkish war. Bosnia-Herzegovina was created and
placed under the protection of A-H. A-H was merely supposed to
protect B-H, not annex it, but would eventually annex it anyway. This
annexation and the tension between Russia and A-H would be a
MAJOR cause of WWI.
 Berlin Conference
o Yay imperialism
 Great Britain keeps extending suffrage
 Reinsurance Treaty
o Bismarck wants to be friends with Russia as long as it doesn’t conflict
with Austria Hungary
 Dreyfus Affair
 SO MANY ALLIANCES
 The Boer War (creates tension between Britain and Germany)
20th Century- 1900s
 Russo-Japanese War (Japanese War)
 Bloody Sunday  Nicholas II October Manifesto (Russian Revolution of
1905)
o Civil liberties / creation of the Duma
 Bosnian Crisis: Austria vs. Russia (Russia forced to back down)
 Balkan Wars (a Serbia issue)
 WWI
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o Franz Ferdinand murdered by Serbians  Austria makes absurd
demands on Serbia to provoke war  declare war
o Germany declares war on Russia
o Schlieffen Plan (France, GB get involved)
o Ottomans join in on Germany’s side
o Sub warfare
o Italy switches sides from Germany to Allies
o Total warfare/trench warfare/complete mobilization
o Treaty of Versailles/14 Points/League of Nations
Russian Revolution
o Women march  factories shut down  troops desert Nicholas II
 Provisional government  Lenin
o Army Order Number 1
o Treaty of Brest-Litovsk: peace with Germany (gives up a lot of
land)
o Civil War
o NEP (some things privatized)
Fascism:
o Mussolini: Italy
 Scares Victor Emmanuel into making him PM
 Acerbo Law: gives complete control to party that controls
25% of the parliament (similar to Enabling Act)
 Lateran Accords: reconcile with the Church
o Hitler: Germany
 Enabling Act
 Diplomatic Revolution
 Third Reich
USSR:
o 5 year plan: heavy industry, farm collectivization, targets kulaks
WWII:
o Appeasement
o Non-Agression Pact (Germany and Soviets)
o Wannsee Conference
o Operation Barbarossa: invasion of Soviet Union
o Battle of Britain
o Battle of Stalingrad
o Pearl Harbor
o D-Day
Conferences:
o Tehran: final plan
o Yalta: post-war reorganization (United Nations)
o Potsdam: how to punish Germany, transformation of Eastern
European countries in Soviet satellites
Cold War:
o Truman Doctrine
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o Marshall Plan
o NATO vs. Warsaw Pact
o Containment (George Kennan)
o Berlin airlift
o Bay of Pigs/Cuban Missile Crisis
o Prague Spring (suppressed_
o Brezhnev Doctrine
Economics
o European Coal and Steel Community
o European Economic Community
o European Union (Maastricht Treaty)
Fifth French Republic
o Charles de Gaulle
o Granted Algeria full independence
o Withdrew French military from NATO
o Developed France’s own nuclear weapons
o Opposed GB’s entry into the EEC
Stalin
o 5 Year plan
Khrushchev
o Denounced Stalin’s reign of terror
o De-Stalinization
 Shifted some resources toward producing more consumer
goods
 Curbed the power of the secret police
 Granted more freedom to writers and intellectuals
Sputnik
o Symbol of Soviet technological prowess
o SPACE RACE!
The Berlin Wall
o Symbol of communist oppression
Cuban Missile Crisis
Played a key role in the end of Khrushchev’s end of power
Brezhnev
o Clamped down on outspoken dissidents
o Led to prolonged period of political repression and economic
stagnation
o Czechoslovakia
 Dubcek initiated program of democratic reforms—
Brezhnev called on Warsaw pact countries to invade
Czechoslovakia
 Brezhnev Doctrine
 Soviet Union and allies had the right to intervene in
the domestic affairs of other Communist countries
Détente
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o Nixon
o Two superpowers agreed to limit nuclear arms and expand trade
Helsinki accords
o High point of Cold War détente
o Ratified the European territorial boundaries established after
WWII and committed the signers to recognize and protect basic
human rights
Gorbachev
o 1985
o Launched reforms
o Glasnost
 Openness—encouraged Soviet citizens to discuss ways in
which to reform their society
o Perestroika
 Economic restructuring to revitalize the Soviet economy
o Demokratizatsiya
 Called for the election of a new legislature, the 2250
member Congress of People’s Deputies
Poland and solidarity
o Led by Lech Walesa workers formed democratic trade union called
Solidarity
o Pope John Paul II supported it
o Polish voters rejected the Communist Party and elected Solidarity
candidates
Fall of the Berlin Wall
o End of the Cold War in Eastern Europe
Collapse of the USSR
o In last attempt to save it some tried to overthrow Gorbachev with
a military coup
 People were willing to defend their freedom as granted by
Gorbachev
o Led by Boris Yeltsin the Russian people thwarted the coup
Russia: Lenin  Stalin  Kruschev  Brezhnev  Gorbachev  Yeltsin 
Spain: Francisco Franco
France: de Gaulle  Mitterand (moderate socialist, focused on social welfare) 
Chirac (tax cuts, job programs)  Sarkozy (conservative, immigration control)
England: Neville Chamberlain (appeasement)  Winston Churchill (hardball) 
Labour Party  Churchill  Margaret Thatcher ( conservative, cuts government
spending)  Tony Blair