2013
UNIT 4
AREA OF STUDY 1
LEARNING
4.1 LEARNING NOTES
Chapter 9 Key Knowledge:
 Behaviours not dependent on learning including reflex action, fixed action patterns and behaviours
due to physical growth and development (maturation).
 Neural mechanisms of learning including developmental plasticity and adaptive plasticity of the brain:
changes to the brain in response to learning and experience; timing of experiences.
PLEASE NOTE: 2013 students have to make their own notes for the above key knowledge dot points
Chapter 10 Key Knowledge:
 Applications of, and comparisons of, learning theories:
 Classical conditioning as informed by Ivan Pavlov: roles of neutral, unconditioned, conditioned stimuli;
unconditioned and conditioned responses
 Applications of classical conditioning: graduated exposure, aversion therapy, flooding
 Trial-and-error learning
 Three-phase model of operant conditioning as informed by B.F. Skinner: positive and negative
reinforcement, response cost, punishment and schedules of reinforcement
 Applications of operant conditioning: shaping, token economies
 Comparisons of classical and operant conditioning in terms of the processes of acquisition, extinction,
stimulus generalisation, stimulus discrimination, spontaneous recovery, role of learner, timing of
stimulus and response, and nature of response (reflexive/voluntary)
 Observational learning (modelling) processes in terms of the role of attention, retention, reproduction,
motivation, reinforcement as informed by Albert Bandura’s social learning theory
 The extent to which ethical principles were applied to classic research investigations into learning including
John Watson’s ‘Little Albert’ experiment
1
CHAPTER 10 – THEORIES OF LEARNING
Conditioning:
 Relationship between environmental stimuli and behavioural responses is important
 Stimuli are events that ‘trigger’ the responses
 Interchangeable with ‘learning’ but conditioning is more how we learn
- Unconditioned behaviours = unlearned and usually reflexive. E.g. Puff of air into the eye = Blinking
- Advertisers are conditioning you to buy their product!
- E.G. Once you pop, ……………………………….
Have a break, ………………………………
1) CLASSICAL (RESPONDENT) CONDITIONING – PAVLOV
Definition: learning where an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that naturally evokes a specific, automatic
unconditioned response (UCR) is paired over a series of trials with a neutral stimulus (NS)
KEY ELEMENTS OF CC
a) Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS):
b) Unconditioned Response (UCR):
c) Conditioned Stimulus (CS):
d) Conditioned Response(CR):
e) Neutral Stimulus (NS):
2
KEY PROCESSES IN CC
a) ACQUISITION:
b) EXTINCTION:
c) SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY:
d) STIMULUS GENERALISATION:
e) STIMULUS DISCRIMINATION:
Use Figure 10.9 page 461 to complete the following table which indicates the results supported by PAVLOV
- Trial 1 – 15: amount of saliva produced in response to the CS and UCS is high
- Trial 16 >: amount of saliva produced decreases when CS is presented (UCS removed)
3
PAVLOV’S EXPERIMENT
(NS)
Read the scenario below, which depicts a learning situation. In the table that follows, fill in the spaces to show the
different responses and stimuli for each stage of the conditioning process based on the scenario.
Flora has a cat named Tiger. Tiger loves eating FishDelish, a brand of cat food,
which Flora feeds Tiger every night. Flora is curious about Tiger’s behaviour,
and she wants to understand how Tiger has come to behave and respond in a
particular way. Flora’s routine when she comes home from work is as follows:
she puts her keys on the kitchen (which makes a clanging noise each time),
then she prepares Tiger’s dinner. After several days of this routine, Flora
noticed that Tiger would run up to her and salivate whenever she put her keys
on the sink.
Before conditioning
Neural stimulus(NS)
______________________
Unconditioned stimulus(UCS)
____________________
During conditioning (aquistion)
Conditioned stimulus (CS/NS)
____________________
+
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
____________________
Conditioned response(CR)
____________________
After conditioning
Conditioned stimulus(CS)
___________________
Conditioned response(CR)
____________________
Unconditioned response(UCR)
____________________
4
Re-read the scenario about Flora and her cat and complete the paragraphs about Flora’s experience with classical
conditioning by writing terms the table below into the correct spaces.(Hint: may use terms more than once).
Weakened
Acquisition
Unconditioned stimulus
Spontaneous recovery
decrease
Similar
Conditioned stimulus
Stimulus generalisation
Reinforcement
Discriminate
Stimulus discrimination
Conditioned response
Extinguished
During the learning stage of classical conditioning, known as ____________________, Tiger associated the
sound of the keys with eating FishDelish. He salivated (___________________ ____________________) because he
anticipated that the sound of the keys (____________________ ____________________) meant he would soon be
fed the FishDelish (____________________ ____________________).
Flora decided to change her routine, and placed the keys in the cupboard as soon as she came home instead
of on the sink. As a result, the response to the sound of the keys __________________. Why? Because there is a
gradual ___________________ in the frequency of a ____________________ ____________________ when the
____________________ ____________________ is no longer available. In other words, classical conditioning is
____________________ by removing ___________________ . Tiger however, did occasionally salivate when he
heard the keys even though the routine had changed. The appearance of the ____________________
____________________ following extinction is called ____________________ ____________________.
When Flora was in the habit of placing her keys on the sink, her flatmate, Jim would sometimes begin
cooking at the same time Flora came home. He clanged the saucepan lids as he took them out of the cupboard.
Tiger also began to salivate at this sound. This is called ___________________ ____________________ because the
stimulus of the clanging saucepan lids was ____________________ to the ____________________
____________________ (the sound of the keys). When Jim opened the oven and fridge doors, both of which made
a creaking sound, Tiger did not salivate because he had learned to __________ between the different stimuli. This is
called ___________________ ___________________.
EVERYDAY EXPERIENCES OF CC
-
When CC has been successful, the CR can occur automatically and appears to be an involuntary reflex also
known as a conditioned reflex
Even though it appears to be a reflex, it isn’t a naturally occurring one as it has been learned
Examples:
a) NS/CS = lead, UCS = walking, UCR = excitement, CR = excitement
Dog learns that the lead means being taken for a walk
b) NS/CS = coke, UCS = happiness, UCR = feeling good, CR = feeling good
Humans learn that Coke leads to feeling good and therefore will buy more of the product.
c) Classical Conditioning hard wires your brain – fMRI research
Subjects drank un-branded cola their taste sensing parts of their brain became active.
When subjects could see the Coke label their hippocampus (memory) also became active.
Therefore, recognition and positive reaction to Coke has been hard wired into the brain.
5
1) Simple Conditioned Reflexes
- Automatic response that occurs as a result of prior experience/learning
- Involves little conscious thought/awareness
- Helps gain information about the environment
- E.g. Pressing the brake when you see brake lights on the car immediately in front of you
2) Complex Behaviours
- Sympathetic NS is triggered by an emotionally provocative stimulus that didn’t previously trigger that response
- Lead to avoidance of the fear causing stimulus
- E.g. Sight of a syringe may produce fear in some children. In this case, the syringe has become a CS as it has
been associated with a jab from a needle (UCS), inducing fear.
WATSON’S ‘LITLE ALBERT’ CONDITIONING EXPERIMENT
-
-
John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner used classical conditioning to produce an emotional response (fear)
They used an 11 month old baby boy , “Little Albert” as a participant for the experiment
“Little Albert” was chosen, because naturally as an infant, his mother observed that he was not frightened or
aroused easily and that he rarely cried like other babies.
First, Watson pre-tested Albert to make sure that he was actually capable of producing a fear response (UCR)
Then, Albert was placed on a mattress in a room where a white lab rat was within his reaching distance;
however, Albert showed no fear of the furry animal and played with it
As the infant was playing with the white rat, he was distracted, and then from behind him a hammer was struck
onto a steel bar; this hammer produced a loud noise (UCS) that caused Albert to progressively be aroused each
time the hammer was struck. Eventually, the once formidable Albert began to pucker his lips and tremble; and
the third time the hammer was struck, he burst into a sudden crying fit – an indication that this emotional
situation had caused Albert considerable fear
Every time Albert tried to play with the white rat, thereafter, the hammer was struck. After 7 pairings (try to
near him (CS-since rats usually should not produce fear-neutral). This fear was so intense that it caused Albert to
not only cry, but to crawl rapidly away from the rat
Before conditioning
 NS: white rat = no fear
 UCS: loud noise = UCR: fear
During conditioning
 CS: white rat + UCS: loud noise = UCR: fear
After conditioning
 CS: white rat = CR: fear of white rats (crying and avoidance)
ETHICAL BREACHES
- Deliberately exposing Albert to procedures involving high risk of psychological harm
- Using a psychologically vulnerable participant in research planned to cause distress through use of a fearinducing stimulus
- Not ending the experiment when it was evident that Albert had become distressed
6
Reading and using the information on pages 467 – 469, answer the following questions.
1. What was the aim of this case study?
2. Identify the possible IV and DV.
3. Write an operational hypothesis for the case study.
4. How did this case study go beyond Pavlov’s original classical conditioning of dogs?
5. What was the result of the Little Albert case study?
6. What conclusions did Watson and Raynor draw?
7. Identify and explain what the ethical breaches were in this case study?
7
Graduated Exposure
Flooding
- Interchangeale with systematic
desensitisation
- presenting successive approximations
of the CS until the CS itself does not
produce the CR
- may start with low-level fear (e.g.
standing on table) then build up to highlevel fear (e.g. sky-diving)
- Usually pair fearful stimulus (e.g.
heights) with relaxation response (e.g.
deep breathing, staying calm)
- aims to gradually extinguish the
Conditioned response (CR) or to at least
change the Conditioned Stimulus (CS) so
that it is associated with a relaxed
response (and not a response of fear)
Complex Behaviours - Phobias
- Extreme example of a conditioned emotional response
- Intense,irrational fear that persists and leads to avoidance
behaviour and may interfere with normal funtioning
Classic example of one-trial learning:
- Conditioned response resulting from person/animal
making an association between a particular food and
being/feeling ill after eating it.
- Eat something – feel sick – never eat it again.
- Resistant to extinction & rarely generalised.
- Learning (conditioning) occurs after only one
experience (i.e. only one pairing of UCS & CS).
Debate over whether it counts as classical
conditioning:
- Doesn’t take time and a number of pairings, whereas
classical conditioning does;
- Resistant to extinction, whereas classical
conditioning can enter extinction fairly quickly;
- There can be a delay between the CS and the CR, but
in classical conditioning there can’t be;
- Generalisation doesn’t usually occur, but in classical
Aversion Therapy
conditioning it does.
Taste Aversion /One Trial
Learning
8
Use classical conditioning principles of aversion therapy (seen in above diagram) to help explain how a person who
habitually bites their fingernails can use a foul nail polish that makes them feel nauseous when tasted, to stop their
habit.
Before Conditioning
NS:
UCS:
= no response
= UCR:
During Conditioning:
CS(NS):
+ UCS:
After Conditioning:
CS:
= CR:
= UCR:
Complete Activity 10.9, 10.27, 10.28
2) TRIAL & ERROR LEARNING - THORNDIKE
Definition: learning by trying alternative possibilities until the desired outcome is achieved. It involves a number of
‘trials’ or attempts and a number of ‘errors’ or incorrect choices
KEY ELEMENTS OF TRIAL & ERROR
a) Motivation – desire to reach a goal
b) Exploration – increase in activity to reach the final goal
c) Incorrect/Correct responses – making either of these responses as part of the numerous attempt to reach the
final goal
d) Reward – once correct goal is reached; strengthens the association between the behaviour and outcome
9
3) OPERANT CONDITIONING (THREE PHASE MODEL)– B.F. SKINNER
-
B.F. Skinner used the term ‘operant conditioning’
Thorndike used the term ‘instrumental learning’
Definition: based on Thorndike’s law of effect that an organism will tend to repeat behaviour (operant) that have a
desirable consequence or that will enable it to avoid an undesirable consequence. Furthermore, an organism will
tend not to repeat a behaviour that has undesirable consequences
-
Increase behaviour because of a desirable consequence: cats receiving fish
Increase a behaviour to avoid an undesirable consequence: do your homework to prevent detention
Decrease behaviour because of an undesirable consequence: get a speeding fine and then stop speeding
THREE PHASE MODEL OF OC– S.R.C
a) STIMULUS that comes before the operant response
b) Organism produces an operant RESPONSE
c) A CONSEQUENCE is a direct effect of the operant response (behaviour)
STIMULUS (S) > RESPONSE (R) > CONSEQUENCE (C)
1) What is the stimulus in Thorndike’s research with cats and the puzzle box?
2) What is the response in the above research?
3) What is the consequence in the above research?
B.F. SKINNER – RATS RESEARCH
-
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PQtDTdDr8vs
Hungry rat was placed in a Skinner Box
Scurried around randomly touching floor, walls etc
Eventually the rat accidentally pressed the lever, which dispensed a food pellet: rat ate.
Rat continued random movements and eventually pressed the lever again: rat ate.
With additional repetitions of lever pressing followed by food, the rat’s random movements began to disappear
and were replaced by more consistent lever pressing.
Eventually the rat was pressing the lever as fast as it could eat each pellet.
Pellet was a reward (reinforcer) for the correct response.
10
KEY ELEMENTS OF OC
-
Skinner’s and Thorndike’s research provided substantial evidence for the concepts of reinforcement and
punishment
REINFORCEMENT
Stengthens/increases behaviour
CONSEQUENCE
Result produced by an action
PUNISHMENT
Weakens/decreases the behaviour
a) REINFORCEMENT (Positive/Negative):
b) PUNISHMENT:
Positive Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
Punishment
If they lay eggs, they don’t get
cooked!)
What is the difference between reinforcer and reward? Are they the same thing?
- Reinforcer and reward play a similar role: both increase the likelihood of a response recurring
- HOWEVER, the only striking difference is that “reward” generally suggests that an outcome is more positive,
such as satisfaction or pleasure. Therefore, not all rewards necessarily strengthen a response; sometimes
rewards just give you satisfaction and that’s it.
- E.g. eating chocolate might make you happy and give you satisfaction; but it may not always strengthen or
increase the likelihood of a response from recurring
Distinguish between positive and negative reinforcement.
- Positive reinforcement involves presenting a stimulus (positive reinforcer) that strengthens or increases the
likelihood of a desired response by providing a satisfying consequence (reward) for exhibition of that desired
response. E.g. Being well behaved in class to get a ‘golden star’ on your name; or cleaning your room in order to
get your weekly pocket money
- Negative reinforcement involves removing an unpleasant stimulus that increases or strengthens the likelihood
of a desired response. E.g. Leaving home early on a certain day and finding there to be no traffic may encourage
you to leave home early again (response) in the future to avoid heavy traffic (removal of unpleasant stimulus)
11
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
-
Programs that are set out to determine how often reinforcement should be given in relation to the correct
response.
Can be continuous or partial
1) CONTINUOUS:
2) PARTIAL: when reinforcement is provided for some correct/desirable response but not all
a) Fixed Ratio:
b) Variable Ratio:
c) Fixed Interval:
d) Variable Interval:
Complete Activity 10.14
12
PUNISHMENT
-
Delivery of an unpleasant consequence following a response (e.g. being yelled at), or the removal of a pleasant
consequence following a response(e.g. losing pocket money)
1) POSITIVE:
2) NEGATIVE:
3) RESPONSE COST:
What are the differences and similarities between negative reinforcement and punishment?
- Negative reinforcement involves the removal of an unpleasant stimulus that increases the likelihood of a
response from recurring.
- Punishment, on the other hand, imposes an unpleasant consequence (or removes a pleasant one) and
decreases or ‘weakens’ the likelihood of a response from recurring. Also, punishment is ‘given’ or ‘applied’ –
while neg. reinforcement is avoided or prevented (such as avoiding traffic through getting out of the house
early). Furthermore, there are two main types of punishment; positive punishment and negative punishment
- Both involve something unpleasant and therefore are similar.
13
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE EFFECTIVENESS OF OC (reinforcement and punishment)
Hint: REMEMBER THE ACRONYM “OAT”
-
Order of Presentation: reinforcement/punishment must be presented after behaviour so that it is learned as a
consequence of that behaviour
-
Timing: reinforcement/punishment are most effective when presented immediately after behaviour (also
increases strength of response).
-
Appropriateness: reinforcement/punishment must be specific to the likes/dislikes of the individual (otherwise
my ‘reward’ could be your ‘punishment’).
Positive Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
Punishment
Order of presentation
Timing
Probability of response
occurring
Stimulus consequences
Timing of stimulus
consequence
Effect on behaviour
14
KEY PROCESSES IN OC
a) ACQUISITION:
- Establishment of a response through reinforcement
- Speed of establishment depends on:
1. Schedule of reinforcement; continuous or partial
2. Complexity of the behaviour; more complex = slower establishment
b) EXTINCTION:
- Gradual decrease in the strength of the conditioned(learned) response following non-reinforcement of the
response
- E.g. when rats weren’t reinforced with food pellets, their conditioned response (pressing the lever) was
eventually extinguished
- E.g. Seals at Sea World stop performing when they are no longer reinforced with sardines
- Less likely to occur when partial reinforcement is used because there are four different ways this can occur
(unpredictable nature – organism is used to not getting reinforced every time)
- E.g. Gambling mentality – unpredictability in reward and have a “sooner or later” attitude
c) SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY
- Organism exhibits the response in the absence of reinforcement, after the conditioned response was thought to
be extinct
d) STIMULUS GENERALISATION
- Correct response is made to another stimulus that is similar to the stimulus that was present when the response
was reinforced
- E.g. sound of a car backfiring near a sports carnival can cause athletes to generalise this sound to the ‘starters
pistol’ and therefore begin running
e) STIMULUS DISCRIMINATION
- Organism makes the correct response to a stimulus and is therefore reinforced; but won’t respond in the same
way to a similar stimuli
- E.g. sniffer dogs use stimulus discrimination to bark when they smell certain things only, such as illegal drugs but
not perfumes
APPLICATIONS OF OC
1.
-
SHAPING (Method of successive approximation)
Reinforcement is given to any response that successively approximates or moves toward the desired response
E.g. Teaching children how to swim; reward floating, reward breathing for 5 seconds under water and so on….
E.g Training a pigeon to turn around in a circle:
a. Random movements
b. Slight turn to the right
c. Repeat above; slight turn to the right
d. Turn even further to the right than previously
e. Repeat above; further turn to the right
f. Turn in a full circle
-
Used when behaviour has a low probability of occurring naturally e.g. circus animals
15
2.
-
TOKEN ECONOMY
Tokens (reinforcers) are given out when a desired response is exhibited
Tokens are collected and exchanged for other reinforcers in the form of actual rewards
E.g. A prisoner’s good behaviour could earn him a token which can then be exchanged for special rewards, such
as cigarettes
Tokens can fail; especially if people feel they are being manipulated
COMPARISON OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING & OPERANT CONDITIONING
SIMILARITIES
DIFFERENCES
Both involve an acquisition process – whereby a response is
‘conditioned’ or learned
In OC, the consequence of response is what determines the
strength of that response – whether it will occur again.
In CC, the association between two stimuli and how often
they are paired close together (in trials) is what determines
the strength of the response
In both types of learning, extinction can occur to the learned
or conditioned response
CC does not have a considerable effect on the environment;
however, OC involves the organism “operating” on the
environment to bring out some kind of effect (such as
a rat pressing on a lever to get food pellet)
In both types of learning, stimulus generalisation and
stimulus discrimination can be observed
The response in CC is quite an involuntary, reflexive and
automatic response to something happening in the
environment (salivating upon seeing food). OC involves
voluntary responses that are initiated by the organism (such
as a child voluntarily throwing a tantrum so they can get a
lollipop from the store)
16
In both CC and OC, spontaneous recovery can interfere with
or disrupt the extinction process
Role of the learner: In CC, the learner plays a passive role; as
the response is automatic and involuntary and the learner
essentially has no control over the learning process.
However, in OC, the learner plays a more active role, in that
they need to “operate” on the environment to bring out
some effect. The learner must thus, make the choice
whether or not to act (“operate”) on the environment (if
they do not, they are neither punished nor reinforced). As
such, the learner has more control over the learning process
in OC.
Both types of conditioning or learning are achieved because
of the repeated association of two events that follow each
other closely in time
In CC, the UCS (meat powder) should be presented first for
the response (salivation) to occur. However, in OC, the
response must occur first and then only can that response
be reinforced or punished accordingly.
The ultimate response in CC usually involves the
autonomic nervous system and the association
between two different stimuli is usually automatic,
reflexive and involuntary response caused by UCS (e.g.
salivation). However, in OC, the response is voluntary
and deliberate (e.g. pressing a lever)
4) OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING (COGNITIVE)
Observational learning is when an individual uses observation of another person’s actions (and their consequences)
to guide their own future actions.
-
E.g. seeing an older brother get rewarded for doing well at school; younger sibling is more likely to try hard at
school.
Also known as modelling because the person being observed is referred to as a ‘model’.
Four Crucial Elements:
1. Attention
- Leaner pays attention to model’s behaviour to recognise the key features
- Pay closer attention to (and are more likely to imitate) models who have:
 high status, perceived positively
 perceived similar features and traits
2. Retention
- Learner retains what was observed in memory
3. Reproduction
- Learner is able to replicate/repeat what was observed
4.
-
Motivation/Reinforcement
Learner must be motivated to perform what was observed
If modelled behaviour is reinforced = increase motivation and vice versa.
External reinforcement: learning by consequences.
Vicarious reinforcement: observing the modelled behaviour being reinforced for other people.
Self-reinforcement: reinforced by meeting certain standards of performance we set for ourselves
(can be positive or negative).
17
Describe 5 different behaviours that you probably learnt by observational learning. Identify the model for each.
1) ________________________________________________________________________________________
2) ________________________________________________________________________________________
3) ________________________________________________________________________________________
4) ________________________________________________________________________________________
5) ________________________________________________________________________________________
ALBERT BANDURA (1960s)
-
-
We learn many behaviours just by observing our surrounding environment:
 Don’t actually need to carry out behaviour and experience consequences; it’s enough to simply watch
the behaviour and its consequences being experienced by someone else.

Modelling is not a totally separate form of learning from conditioning, but rather a variation of conditioning.
-
Bandura’s experiments demonstrated that both classical and operant conditioning can occur vicariously.
-
Vicarious conditioning: individual watches another person displaying behaviour (that is either reinforced or
punished), then subsequently behaves exactly the same way, a modified way or refrains from the behaviour, as a
result of what they observed.
 Vicarious reinforcement: increases the likelihood of the observer behaving in a similar way to a model
whose behaviour is reinforced.
 Vicarious punishment: decreases the likelihood of the observer behaving in a similar way to a model
whose behaviour is punished.
BoBo Doll Experiment #1 (1961)
- Demonstrated influence of observational learning on aggression in four-year-old children.
 Experimental Group 1: Watched adult play aggressively.
 Experimental Group 2: Watched adult play non-aggressively.
 Control Group: No adult model.
- After watching the adults, each child was subjected to ‘mild aggression arousal’ (told they couldn’t play with
toys), then placed into another room with toys and a BoBo doll.
- Each child’s behaviour was observed.
- To control individual participant differences, children were pre-tested for aggressiveness and rated on 5-point
rating scales.
- Matched-participants design was used to create ‘triplets’ of similarly aggressive children.
18
Aggressive model condition - sub groups
6 boys with male
model
6 boys with female
model
6 boys with female
model
6 girls with male model
6 boys with female
model
6 girls with male model
Non aggressive model condition – sub groups
6 boys with male
model
6 boys with female
model
Control condition – no sub groups
24 children, each with no model in the room
RESULTS
- Children who saw aggressive model performed more aggressive acts:
 Boys were more aggressive overall;
 Boys imitated aggression more from male models;
 Girls imitated physical aggression more from male models rather than female;
 Girls imitated verbal aggression from female models rather than male.
- Children already had sex role expectations about male and female aggression – “That’s not the way for a lady to
behave…she was acting like a man”, “‘that man is a strong fighter.” These expectations influenced how much
they imitated male vs. female aggression.
- Behaviour learned through observation may not be demonstrated unless opportunity presented.
BoBo Doll Experiment #2 (1963a)
- Explored influence of live-action films & cartoons on aggression in four-year-old children.
 Experimental Group 1: ‘Real-life’ aggressive models.
 Experimental Group 2: Live-action aggressive models.
 Experimental Group 3: Cartoon aggressive models (actor dressed as cartoon cat).
 Control Group: No model.
- Matched-participants design used again.
- Following the screening, each child was placed in a room with toys and a BoBo doll.
- Each child’s behaviour was observed.
RESULTS
- Exposure to aggressive models increases the probability that children will behave aggressively.
- This is true both for real-life models & models in live-action films or cartoons:
 Children who watched films/cartoons showed almost twice as much aggression as the control group
children.
- Sex differences were again found.
- Highlights significant influence of the media.
BoBo Doll Experiment #3 (1963b)
- Demonstrated influence of reward & punishment on observational learning of aggression.
 Experimental Group 1: Aggressive model rewarded.
 Experimental Group 2: Aggressive model punished.
 Control Group 1: Non-aggressive model, no consequences.
 Control Group 2: No model.
- Following the screening, each child was placed individually in a room with toys and a BoBo doll.
- Each child’s behaviour was observed.
19
RESULTS
- The consequences influenced the behaviour of the children who saw them:
 Children who watched the model being reinforced (rewarded) imitated aggressive behaviour more than
children in the other three conditions.
 No significant difference between other three conditions.
 Boys more aggressive than girls except when model was rewarded, in which case there was little
difference.
- When asked, children in experimental group 1 said that they would prefer to be like the most aggressive model:
 The individual model they identified as being most successful in achieving the rewarded behaviour.
 Supports Bandura’s proposal that observational learning is not totally separate from conditioning
(involves some processes).
- Learning can take place without actually performing/demonstrating it.
 We learn by observation not only how to acquire or modify behaviour but also about what behaviours
can be expected to lead to particular consequences.
 i.e. Observation allows to learn behaviour AND when to use it (or not).
20