Chapter 6: Learning
- Learning - a relatively durable change in behaviour or knowledge that is due to
experience
- conditioning - involves learning associations between events that occur in an
organismʼs environment.
KEY POINTS IN THIS CHAPTER (pages 227-236)
- Learning is defined as a relatively durable change in behaviour or knowledge due to
experience. Classical conditioning explains how a neutral stimulus can acquire the
capacity to elicit a response originally elicited by another stimulus. This kind of
conditioning was originally described by Ivan Pavlov, who conditioned dogs to salivate
in response to the sound of a tone
- In classical conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is a stimulus that elicits an
unconditioned response without previous conditioning. The unconditioned response
(UCR) is an unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without
previous conditioning. The conditioned stimulus (CS) is a previously neutral stimulus
that has acquired the capacity to elicit a conditioned response. The conditioned
response (CR) is a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus.
- Classically conditioned responses are said to be elicited. Many kinds of everyday
responses are regulated through classical conditioning, including phobia, mild fears,
and pleasant emotional responses. Even subtle physiological responses such as
immune system functioning respond to classical conditioning. Our Featured Study
showed that sexual arousal can be influenced by Pavlovian conditioning and that this
process may have adaptive significance.
- Stimulus contiguity plays a key role in the acquisition of new conditioned responses. A
conditioned response may be weakened and extinguished entirely when the CS is no
longer paired with the UCS. In some cases, spontaneous recovery occurs, and an
extinguished response reappears after a period of non-exposure to the CS
- Conditioning may generalize to additional stimuli that are similar to the original CS
- The opposite of generalization is discrimination, which involves not responding to a
stimuli that resemble the original CS. When an organism learns a discrimination, the
generalization gradient narrows around the original CS. Higher-order conditioning
occurs when a CS functions as if it were a UCS.
Classical Conditioning
- phobias - irrational fears of specific objects or situations
--> acquired through classical conditioning
- classical conditioning - a type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to
evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus
- sometimes referred to Pavlovian conditioning
Pavlovʼs Demonstration: “Psychic Reflexes”
- Ivan Pavlov
- studying the role of saliva in the digestive processes of dogs when he stumbled onto
what he called “psychic reflexes”
Chapter 6: Learning
- would present dogs with meat powder and then collect the resulting saliva
- he noticed that they would start salivating before the meat powder - response to
associated stimulus
- Investigated further - paired the presentation of meat powder with a simple auditory
tone
- After multiple times, then just presented the tone and the dog responded by salivating
- the tone started out as a neutral stimulus but then was changed by the pairing with
meat powder
- Showed how learned associations were formed by events in an organismʼs
environment
Terminology and Procedures
- unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - a stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response
without previous conditioning. (meat powder)
- unconditioned response (UCR) - an unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus
that occurs without previous conditioning. (salivating)
- conditioned stimulus (CS) - a previously neutral stimulus that has acquired the
capacity to elicit a conditioned response. (tone)
- conditioned response (CR) - a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus. (salivating)
- “psychic reflex” became the conditioned reflex
- conditioned responses have been characterized as reflexes and are said to be elicited
(drawn forth) because most of them are relatively automatic or involuntary however
some are non-reflexive
- trial (in classical conditioning) - consists of any presentation of a stimulus or pair of
stimuli
- interested in seeing how many trials required to establish conditioned bond
Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life
CONDITIONED FEARS
- many irrational fears can be traced back to experiences that involve classical
conditioning
- phobias - trace back to event in past
OTHER CONDITIONED EMOTIONAL RESPONSES
- many pleasant emotional responses are also acquired through classical conditioning
- advertising campaigns often try to take advantage of classical conditioning - pair their
products with UCSs that elicit pleasant emotions
CONDITIONING AND PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES
- functioning of the immune system can be influenced by psychological factors,
including conditioning
- Classical conditioning procedures can lead to immunosuppression - a decrease in
the production of antibodies
- can elicit allergic reactions
- contributes to the growth of drug tolerance and the experience of withdrawal
symptoms
Chapter 6: Learning
Basic Processes in Classical Conditioning
ACQUISITION: FORMING NEW RESPONSES
- Acquisition - the initial stage of learning something
- acquisition depends in part on stimulus contiguity - stimuli occur together in time and
space
- conditioning does not occur to all stimuli presenting a situation - stimuli that are novel,
unusual, or especially intense have more potential to become CSs than routine stimuli
EXTINCTION: WEAKENING CONDITIONED RESPONSES
- does not necessarily last indefinitely
- extinction - the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response
tendency
- the consistent presentation of the conditioned stimulus alone without the
unconditioned stimulus
SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY: RESURRECTING RESPONSES
- spontaneous recovery - the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period
of non-exposure to the conditioned stimulus
- renewal effect - when a response is extinguished in a different environment than it
was acquired, the extinguished response will reappear if the animal is returned to the
original environment where acquisition took place
- extinction does not lead to unlearning
STIMULUS GENERALIZATION
- stimulus generalization - occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a
specific stimulus responds in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the
original stimulus
- adaptive
- basic law: the more similar new stimuli are to the CS, the greater the generalization
STIMULUS DISCRIMINATION
- Stimulus discrimination - occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a
specific stimulus does not respond in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to
the original stimulus
- adaptive
- usually requires that the original CS continue to be paired with the UCS while similar
stimuli not be paired with the UCS
- basic law: less similar new stimuli are to the original CS, the greater the likelihood of
discrimination
- the generalization gradient gradually narrows around the original CS
HIGHER-ORDER Conditioning
- higher-order conditioning - a conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an
unconditioned stimulus
- new conditioned responses are built on the foundation of already established
conditioned responses
Chapter 6: Learning
KEY POINTS IN THIS CHAPTER (pages 236-242)
- Operant conditioning involves largely voluntary responses that are governed by their
consequences. Thorndike paved the way for Skinnerʼs work by investigating
instrumental conditioning and describing the law of effect
- Skinner pioneered the study of operant conditioning, working mainly with rats and
pigeons in Skinner boxes. He demonstrated that organisms tend to repeat those
responses that are followed by reinforcers. Operant responses are said to be emitted
- The key dependent variable in operant conditioning is the rate of response over time,
which is tracked by a device called a cumulative recorder. When responding over time
is shown graphically, steep slopes indicate rapid responding
- New operant responses can be shaped by gradually reinforcing closer and closer
approximations of the desired response. Shaping is the key to training animals to
perform impressive tricks. In operant conditioning, extinction occurs when
reinforcement for a response is terminated and the rate of that response declines.
There are variations in resistance to extinction
- Operant responses are regulated by discriminative stimuli that are cues for the
likelihood of obtaining reinforcers. These stimuli are subject to the same processes of
generalization and discrimination that occur in classical conditioning
- The central process in reinforcement is the strengthening of a response. Delayed
reinforcement slows the process of conditioning. Primary reinforcement slows the
process of conditioning. Primary reinforcers are unlearned; they are closely tied to the
satisfaction of physiological needs. In contrast, secondary reinforcers acquire their
reinforcing quality through conditioning
Operant Conditioning
- B.F. Skinner
- operant conditioning - a form of learning in which responses come to be controlled by
their consequences
Throndikeʼs Law of Effect
- another name for operant conditioning is instrumental learning termed by Edward L.
Throndike
- paved the way for Skinnerʼs work by investigating instrumental conditioning and
describing the law of effect
- Thorndikeʼs cats - cat in puzzle box - had to figure out how to get out by performing a
specific task - rewarded after - monitored how long it took the cat to get out of the box
over a series of trials
- observed gradual, uneven decline in the time it took cats to escape from his puzzle
boxes
- law of effect - if a response in the presence of a stimulus leads to satisfying effects, the
association between the stimulus and the response is strengthened
Skinnerʼs Demonstration: Itʼs All a Matter of Consequences
- Skinner
- Skinner demonstrated that organisms tend to repeat those responses that are followed
by favourable consequences
Chapter 6: Learning
- reinforcement - occurs when an event following a response increases an organismʼs
tendency to make that response
Terminology and Procedures
- research on rats and pigeons - very simple research
- rat or pigeon placed in an operant chamber that has come to be better known as a
“Skinner box”
- operant chamber or Skinner box - a small enclosure in which an animal can make a
specific response that is recorded while the consequences of the response are
systematically controlled
- permits experimentor to control the reinforcement contingencies - the circumstances
or rules that determine whether responses lead to the presentation of reinforcers
- since operante responses tend to be voluntary, they are said to be emitted rather than
elicited
- animal - push lever or peck small disk on wall - get reward (food)
- key dependant variable in most operant conditioning research is the response rate
over time
- measure with cumulative recorder - creates a graphic record of responding and
reinforcement in a Skinner box as a function of time
--> a rapid response rate produces a steep slope and vice versa for slow response
rate
Basic Processes in Operant Conditioning
ACQUISITION AND SHAPING
- acquisition (in operant conditioning)- the initial stage of learning some new pattern of
responding
- operant responses are usually established through shaping - consists of the
reinforcement of closer and closer approximation of a desired response
- used when an organism does not, on its own, emit the desired response
- used to train animals
EXTINCTION
- extinction (in operant conditioning) - the gradual weakening and disappearance of a
response tendency because the response is no longer followed by a reinforcer
- resistance to extinction - occurs when an organism continues to make a response after
delivery of the reinforcer has been terminated
- greater resistance to extinction = longer responding will continue
- depends on variety of factors - the schedule of reinforcement during acquisition
STIMULUS CONTROL: GENERALIZATION AND DISCRIMINATION
- operant responding = response-outcome (R-O) association
- stimuli that precede a response can also exert considerable influence over operant
behaviour
- when a response is consistently followed by a reinforcer in the presence of a
particular stimulus, that stimulus comes to serve as a “signal” indicating that the
response is likely to lead to a reinforcer
Chapter 6: Learning
- Discriminative stimuli - cues that influence operant behaviour by indicating the
probable consequences (reinforcement or non-reinforcement) of a response
- reactions to discriminative stimulus are governed by the processes of stimulus
generalization and stimulus discrimination
Reinforcement: Consequences That Strengthen Responses
- reinforcement occurs whenever an outcome strengthens a response, as measured by
an increase in the rate of responding
- central process in reinforcement = the strengthening of a response tendency
- reinforcement is defined after the fact, in terms of its effect on behaviour
DELAYED REINFORCEMENT
- favourable outcome more likely to strengthen response if follows immediately
- the longer the delay between the designated response and the delivery of the
reinforcer, the more slowly conditioning proceeds
CONDITIONED REINFORCEMENT
- distinction between unlearned/primary reinforcers as opposed to conditioned/
secondary reinforcers
- primary reinforcers - events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy
biological needs
--> limited
--> human: food, water, warmth, sex, affection
- secondary/conditioned reinforcers - events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being
associated with primary reinforcers
- examples common in human: money, good grades, attention, flattery, praise,
applause
KEY POINTS IN THIS CHAPTER (pages 242-248)
- Schedules of reinforcement influence patterns of operant responding. Continuous
reinforcement occurs when every designated response is reinforced. Intermittent
schedules of reinforcement include fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and
variable-interval schedules
- Intermittent schedules produce greater resistance to extinction than similar continuous
schedules. Ratio schedules tend to yield higher rates of response than interval
schedules. Shorter intervals and higher ratios are associated with faster responding
- Responses can be strengthened either through the presentation of positive reinforcers
or through the removal of negative reinforcers. Negative reinforcement regulates
escape and avoidance learning. The two-process theory provides the best explanation
of avoidance behaviour may shed light on why phobias are so difficult to eliminate
- Punishment involves unfavourable consequences that lead to a decline in response
strength. Positive punishment involves the application of aversive consequences and
negative punishment involves the removal of reward. Problems associated with the
application of punishment as a disciplinary procedure include emotional side effects
and increased aggressive behaviour. To be effective, punishment of children should be
swift, consistent, explained, non-physical, and just severe enough to have an impact
Chapter 6: Learning
Intermittent Reinforcement: Effects of Basic Schedules
- how intermittent schedules of reinforcement influence operant behaviours
- schedule of reinforcement - determine which occurrences of a specific response result
in the presentation of a reinforcer
- continuous reinforcement - occurs when every instance of a designated response is
reinforced
- intermittent/partial reinforcement - occurs when a designated response is reinforced
only some of the time
- makes a response more resistant to extinction
- 4 types of intermittent schedules that have attracted the most attention:
- Ratio schedules
-- require the organisms to make the designated response a certain number of times
to gain each reinforcer
--> fixed-ration (FR) schedule - the reinforcer is given after a fixed number of nonreinforced responses
--> variable-ratio (VR) schedule - the reinforcer is given after a variable number of
nonreinforced responses
- Interval schedules
-- requires a time period to pass between the presentation of reinforcers
--> fixed-interval (FI) schedule - the reinforcer is given for the first response that
occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed
--> variable-interval (VI) schedule - the reinforcer is given for the first response after
a variable time interval has elapsed
- generally, ratio schedules tend to produce more rapid responding than interval
schedules
- faster responding leads to reinforcement sooner when a ratio schedule is in effect
- variable schedules tend to generate steadier response rates and greater resistance to
extinction than their fixed counterparts
Positive Reinforcement versus Negative Reinforcement
- Positive reinforcement - occurs when a response is strengthened because it is
followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus
- Negative reinforcement - occurs when a response is strengthened because it is
followed by the removal of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus
Negative Reinforcement and Avoidance Behaviour
ESCAPE LEARNING
- roots of avoidance lie in escape learning
- escape learning - an organisms acquires a response that decreases or ends some
aversion stimulation
- usually do experiments with shuttle box with rats - two “rooms” connected by a door electrical charge in compartment with rat, runs into other one to escape the shock
AVOIDANCE LEARNING
- escape learning often lead to avoidance learning
Chapter 6: Learning
- avoidance learning - an organisms acquires a response that prevents some aversive
stimulation from occurring
- avoidance responses tend to be long-lasting even though the mechanism of continuing
reinforcement is obscure
- theoretically should gradually extinguish
TWO-PROCESS THEORY OF AVOIDANCE
- asserts that the avoidance response removes an internal aversive stimulus conditioned fear - rather than an external aversive stimulus, such as shock
- strength: provides a simple, compelling account for why avoidance behaviours - such
as phobias - are so resistant to extinction
- phobias usually leads to an avoidance response that earns negative reinforcement
each time it is made and avoidance behaviour prevents opportunities to extinguish the
phobic conditioned response because the person doesnʼt get much exposure to the
conditioned (phobic) stimulus
Punishment: Consequences That Weaken Responses
- punishment - occurs when an event following a response weakens the tendency to
make that response
- positive punishment - involves the presentation of an aversive stimulus
- negative punishment - involves the removal of a rewarding stimulus
- punishment and negative reinforcement are opposite procedures that yield opposite
effects on the behaviour
SIDE EFFECTS OF PHYSICAL PUNISHMENT
- produces many unintended and undesirable side effects
- physical punishment is associated with poor-quality parent-child relations, elevated
aggression, delinquency, and behavioural problems in youngsters, and is associated
with an increased likelihood of children being abused --> carry into adulthood:
increased aggression, criminal behaviour, mental health problems, and child abuse
- correlational - no assurance of causation
- To be effective
1) Apply punishment swiftly
2) Use punishment just severe enough to be effective
3) Make punishment consistent
4) Explain the punishment
5) Use non-corporal punishment, such as withdrawal of privileges
KEY POINTS IN THIS CHAPTER (pages 249-252)
- Recent decades have brought profound changes in our understanding of conditioning.
Instinctive drift occurs when an animalʼs innate response tendencies interfere with
conditioning. Conditioned taste aversions can be readily acquired even when there is a
lengthy delay between the CS and UCS. Seligmanʼs concept of preparedness may
explain why certain phobias are far more common than others
- The findings on instinctive drift conditioned taste aversion, and preparedness have led
to the recognition that there are species-specific biological constraints on conditioning.
Chapter 6: Learning
Some evolutionary psychologists argues that learning processes vary immensely
across species because different species have to grapple with very different adaptive
problems
- Rescorlaʼs work on signal relations showed that the predictive value of a CS is an
influential factor governing classical conditioning. When a response is followed by a
desirable outcome, the response is more likely to be strengthened if it appears that the
response caused the outcome. Studies of signal relations in classical conditioning
suggest that cognitive processes play a larger role in conditioning than originally
believed
Changing Directions in the Study of Conditioning
Recognizing Biological Constraints on Conditioning
- limits imposed by an organismʼs biological heritage
INSTINCTIVE DRIFT: The Case of the Miserly Racoons
- One biological constraint on learning is instinctive drift - occurs when an animalʼs
innate response tendencies interfere with conditioning processes
- Brelands - was training racoons to deposit coins in a piggy bank and reinforced with
food - this brought out the racoons' innate food-washing behaviour - rub things
together to clean them --> wouldnʼt let go of the coins
CONDITIONED TASTE AVERSION: The “Sauce Béarnaise Syndrome”
- Martin Seligman
- had steak with sauce béarnaise - got sick - after that, even aroma made him though
up - he called it his “sauce béarnaise syndrome”
- was puzzled by it because even though it followed classical conditioning structure
(neutral stimulus paired with UCS which causes UCR therefore neutral stimulus
becomes CS), there was a 6 hour delay between the CS and the UCS which should
prevent conditioning from occurring and it was only the béarnaise sauce that became
a CS eliciting nausea and not another stimuli present in the restaurant at the time
- John Garcia - conducted a series of studies on conditioned taste aversion
- there is a unique readiness to make connections between taste and nausea
--> argued that it is a byproduct of the evolutionary history of mammals - avoiding the
consumption of poisonous foods
PREPAREDNESS AND PHOBIAS
- Martin Seligman
- evolution has also programmed organisms to acquire certain fears more readily than
others because of preparedness - involves a species-specific predisposition to be
conditioned in certain ways and not others
- believes that preparedness can explain why certain phobias are vastly more common
than others
- survival value
Chapter 6: Learning
EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVES ON LEARNING
- the predominant view seems to be that the basic mechanisms of learning are similar
across species but that these mechanisms have sometimes been modified in the
course of evolution as species have adapted to the specialized demands of their
environments
- assumes that an organismʼs biological heritage - shaped by natural selection - places
certain constraints on the learning process
- evolutionary psychologists say that there is no such think as the learning process there are many learning processes, sculpted by evolution, as specialized mechanisms
designed to solve particular types of adaptive problems for particular species
Recognizing Cognitive Processes in Conditioning
- mainstream theories of conditioning did not allocate a major role to cognitive
processes however, research findings have led theorists to shift toward more cognitive
explanations of conditioning
SIGNAL RELATIONS
- Robert Rescorla
- asserts that environmental stimuli serve as signals and that some stimuli are better, or
more dependable, signals than others
- manipulated signal relations in classical conditioning - CS-UCS relations that influence
whether a CS is a good signal - “good” signal = allows accurate predition of the UCS
- manipulates the predictive value of a conditioned stimulus
- varies the proportion of trials in which the CS and UCS are paried
RESPONSE-OUTCOME RELATIONS AND REINFORCEMENT
- reinforcement is not automatic when favourable consequences follow a response
-people actively reason out the relations between responses and the outcomes that
follow
- When a response is followed by a desirable outcome, the response is more likely to be
strengthened if it appears that the response caused the outcome.
- Studies of signal relations in classical conditioning suggest that cognitive processes
play a larger role in conditioning than originally believed
KEY POINTS IN THIS CHAPTER (pages 253-255)
- In observational learning, an organism is conditioned vicariously by watching a
modelʼs conditioning. Both classical and operant conditioning can occur through
observational learning, which depends on the processes of attention, retention,
reproduction, and motivation
- According to Bandura, reinforcement influences which of several already acquired
responses one will perform more than it influences the acquisition of new responses
- Observational learning can account for the influence of mass media (such as
television) on behaviour. The principle of observational learning have also been used
to explain why physical punishment increases aggressive behaviour
- Two of our key themes were especially apparent - interaction of heredity and
environment in learning &the way progress in psychology affects society at large
Chapter 6: Learning
Observational Learning
- Observational learning - occurs when an organismʼs responding is influenced by the
observation of others, who are called models
- Albert Bandura
- didnʼt see observational learning as entirely separate from classical and operant
conditioning
- asserts that it greatly extends the reach of these conditioning processes
- observational learning involves being conditioned indirectly by virtue of observing
otherʼs conditioning
Basic Processes
- Bandura identified four key processes that are crucial in observational learning:
1) Attention
2) Retention - store in memory
3) Reproduction - converting stored mental images into over behaviour
4) Motivation - motivation depends on whether you encounter a situation in which you
believe that the response is likely to pay off for you
Acquisition versus Performance
- Bandura - people have many learned responses that they may or may not perform,
depending on the situation
- distinguishes between acquisition of a learned response and performance of that
response
--> people emit those responses that they think are likely to be reinforced
Application
- Bandura - early advocate of the applicaiton of learning principles to explain
aggression in children
- Observational learning can account for the influence of mass media (such as
television) on behaviour.
- The principle of observational learning have also been used to explain why physical
punishment increases aggressive behaviour