FALL 2004
Dikran J. Martin
Introduction to Psychology
Name: ________________________________
Date: _________________________
Lecture Series: Chapter 7 Learning
Pages: 32
TEXT: Lefton, Lester A. and Brannon, Linda (2003). PSYCHOLOGY. (Eighth Edition.)
Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Principal Features
[Page]
Introduction
Question:
Why do psychologists study learning?
Complete the following:
"Psychologists define learning as a relatively permanent change in
the organism that occurs as a result of …
Question:
What's the meaning of the following statement?
" … psychologist study the results of learning."
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(222)
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Introduction
(Continued)
[Page]
Complete the following:
"This definition of learning has three other important parts:
(1) experiences in the …
(222)
(2) change in the …
and (3) …
"Behavior is always being …
"new experiences …
"And, along with the external environment, an organism's internal
motivation, abilities, and physiological state influence its ability
to learn."
[Example] Learning.
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Pavlovian, or Classical, Conditioning Theory
[Page]
"Psychologists often use the term conditioning in a general sense,
to mean learning."
Complete the following:
"But more precisely, conditioning is a systematic procedure
through which …
[Example] Conditioning.
Question:
What is a stimulus?
Question:
What is a response?
[Example] Stimulus and response.
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(223)
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Pavlovian, or Classical, Conditioning Theory
(Continued)
[Page]
Question:
What is a reflex?
(223)
[Example] Reflex.
Question:
How are conditioned behaviors like reflexes?
Question:
How are conditioned behaviors unlike reflexes?
"In 1927, Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), a Russian physiologist,
summarized a now-famous series of experiments in which
he uncovered a basic principle of learning―conditioning."
Question:
What's the meaning of the following statement?
"His study of conditioning began quite
accidentally … "
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Terms and Procedures
[Page]
Question:
What is classical conditioning?
Question:
What is the unconditioned stimulus?
Question:
What is the unconditioned response?
[Example] Classical conditioning.
(224-225)
Question:
What is the conditioned stimulus?
Question:
What is the conditioned response?
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(224)
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Terms and Procedures
(Continued)
[Page]
Question:
What's the meaning of the following statements?
"The key characteristic of classical conditioning
is the use of an originally neutral stimulus … "
(225)
"Classical conditioning occurs regularly in the
everyday world."
"Classical conditioning doesn't always involve
associations of positive things."
Classical Conditioning in Humans
" … psychologists were able to see that conditioning also occurs
inhuman beings."
[Example] Classical conditioning in humans.
(LS7lal_04)
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(225-226)
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Classical Conditioning in Humans
(Continued)
[Page]
Question:
What's the meaning of the following statement?
"The complex process of learning is not automatic … "
[Examples] Complex conditioned responses.
Higher-Order Conditioning
Question:
What is the higher-order conditioning?
Complete the following:
" … higher-order conditioning permits increasingly remote associations.
which can result in a …
(LS7lal_04)
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(226)
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Key Variables in Classical Conditioning
[Page]
"Classical conditioning is not a simple process … "
[Examples] Conditioning as a matrix of events.
Strength, Timing, and Frequency
„ STRENGTH OF THE UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS.
[Example] Strength of the unconditioned stimulus.
„ TIMING OF THE UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS.
[Example] Timing of the unconditioned stimulus.
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(227)
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Strength, Timing, and Frequency
(Continued)
[Page]
„ FREQUENCY OF PAIRINGS.
[Example] Frequency of pairings.
(228)
Predictability
"A key factor determining whether conditioning will occur is the predictability
of an association of the unconditioned and conditioned stimuli."
[Example] Predictability of an association of the unconditioned and
conditioned stimuli.
Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
Question:
(LS7lal_04)
What is the classical conditioning procedure called extinction?
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(228-229)
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Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
(Continued)
[Page]
Question:
What is the classical conditioning procedure termed
spontaneous recovery?
(229)
Stimulus Generalization and Stimulus Discrimination
Question:
What is the classical conditioning process called stimulus
generalization?
[Example] Stimulus generalization.
Question:
What is the classical conditioning process called stimulus
discrimination?
[Examples] Stimulus discrimination.
(LS7lal_04)
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(230)
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Classical Conditioning in Daily Life
[Page]
„ THE GARCIA EFFECT.
Question:
What is the Garcia effect?
(231)
[Examples] Garcia effect.
(231-232)
„ LEARNING AND CHEMOTHERAPY.
[Examples] Classical conditioning and chemotherapy treatments.
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(232)
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„ CONDITIONING OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM.
[Examples] Conditioning of the immune system.
[Page]
(232-233)
Pavlov's Understanding Reinterpreted
Question:
How is Ivan Pavlov's original research applicable to behavioral
research and practice today?
(233)
Operant Conditioning
The Pioneers: B. F. Skinner and E. L. Thorndike
"In the 1030's, B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) began to change the way
psychologists think about conditioning and learning."
Question:
(LS7lal_04)
What was B. F. Skinner's critique of Pavlovian (classical)
conditioning?
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(234)
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The Pioneers: B. F. Skinner and E. L. Thorndike
(Continued)
[Page]
Question:
What is operant conditioning?
[Example] Operant conditioning.
(235)
" … the American psychologist E. L. Thorndike (1874-1949) … pioneered
the study of operant conditioning … "
[Example] Instrumental conditioning.
Question:
(LS7lal_04)
(234)
What is the difference between an emitted and an elicited
response?
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The Skinner Box and Shaping
[Page]
"Much of the research on operant conditioning has used an apparatus that
most psychologists call a Skinner box … "
[Description] Skinner box.
Question:
(235-236)
What is operant conditioning process called shaping?
[Illustrations] Shaping in animals and humans.
Reinforcement: A Consequence That Strengthens a Response
"To really understand operant conditioning, you need to study the basic
principles of reinforcement."
Question:
(LS7lal_04)
What is a reinforcer in the operant conditioning process?
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(236)
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Reinforcement: A Consequence That Strengthens a Response
(Continued)
[Page]
[Examples] Reinforcement.
(236-237)
„ POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT.
"Most people have used positive reinforcement at one time or another."
[Examples] Positive reinforcement.
(237)
„ NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT.
Question:
What is negative reinforcement in the operant conditioning
process?
[Example] Negative reinforcement.
(LS7lal_04)
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„ NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT.
[Page]
Question:
What is escape conditioning?
(237)
Question:
What is avoidance conditioning?
[Examples] Escape and avoidance reinforcement.
„ THE NATURE OF REINFORCERS.
Question:
What's the meaning of the following statement?
"The precise nature of reinforcers is somewhat
murky."
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(238)
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„ THE NATURE OF REINFORCERS.
(Continued)
[Page]
Question:
What is a primary reinforcer?
(238)
Question:
What is a secondary reinforcer?
Question:
What's the meaning of the following statement?
"Secondary reinforcers are generally used
to modify human behavior."
„ SUPERSTITIOUS BEHAVIORS.
[Examples] Superstitious Behaviors.
(LS7lal_04)
(238-239)
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„ ELECTRICAL BRAIN STIMULATION.
[Page]
[Examples] Electrical Brain Stimulation.
(238-239)
Punishment: A Consequence That Weakens a Response
Question:
What is punishment?
(239)
[Examples] Punishment.
(LS7lal_04)
(239-240)
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„ THE NATURE OF PUNISHERS.
[Page]
"Like reinforcers, punishers can be primary or secondary."
Question:
What is a primary punisher?
Question:
What is a secondary punisher?
(240)
[Examples] Primary and secondary punishers.
„ PUNISHMENT PLUS REINFORCEMENT.
[Examples] Punishment plus reinforcement.
(LS7lal_04)
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(240-241)
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„ LIMITATIONS OF PUNISHMENT.
Question:
[Page]
What is a serious limitation of punishment?
[Examples] Limitations of punishment.
(241)
(241-242)
Key Variables in Operant Conditioning
Strength, Timing, and Frequency
„ STRENGTH OF CONSEQUENCES.
[Examples] Strength of consequences.
(LS7lal_04)
(242)
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„ TIMING OF CONSEQUENCES.
[Page]
[Examples] Timing of consequences.
(243)
„ FREQUENCY OF CONSEQUENCES.
"How often do people need to be reinforced."
Question:
What is a schedule of reinforcement?
Question:
What is continuous reinforcement?
Question:
What are interval schedules of reinforcement?
Question:
What are ratio schedules of reinforcement?
(LS7lal_04)
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„ FREQUENCY OF CONSEQUENCES.
[Page]
Question:
What is a fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement?
Question:
What is a variable-interval schedule of reinforcement?
Question:
What is a fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement?
Question:
What is a variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement?
[Examples] Schedules of reinforcement.
(LS7lal_04)
(243)
(243-244)
(244)
(244-245)
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Stimulus Generalization and Stimulus Discrimination
[Page]
"Stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination occur in operant
conditioning much as they do in classical conditioning."
[Examples] Stimulus generalization and Stimulus discrimination.
(246)
Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
Question:
What is a extinction in operant conditioning?
[Examples] Extinction in operant conditioning.
(LS7lal_04)
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(246-247)
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Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
(Continued)
[Page]
Question:
What is a spontaneous recovery in operant conditioning?
[Examples] Spontaneous recovery in operant conditioning.
Operant Conditioning in Daily Life
"Our world is full of reinforcers and punishers."
„ INTRINSICALLY MOTIVATED BEHAVIOR.
"Psychologists have shown that reinforcement is effective in establishing
and maintaining behavior."
Complete the following:
"But some behaviors are intrinsically rewarding―they are …
(LS7lal_04)
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(247)
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„ INTRINSICALLY MOTIVATED BEHAVIOR.
(Continued)
[Page]
Question:
What are extrinsically motivated behaviors in operant
conditioning?
(248)
[Examples] Intrinsically motivated behaviors.
„ BEHAVIORAL SELF - REGULATION.
"Behavioral regulation theorists assume that people and animals will
choose, if possible, activities that seem optimal to them."
[Examples] Behavioral self-regulation.
(LS7lal_04)
(248-249)
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The Biology that Underpins Learning
Nature and Nurture
[Page]
"Our nature consists of our inherited characteristics determined by genetics;
our nurture refers to our experiences in the environment."
Complete the following:
"It can be difficult to discern which behaviors derive from …
Are Evolutionary Theory and Learning Theory Incompatible?
Question:
What's the meaning of the following statements?
Evolutionary theory does not rule out learning,
and evolution does not strictly determine
behavior … "
"Evolutionary theory asserts that evolution is
continusously setting the framework for
human learning … "
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Learning and the Nervous System
[Page]
"Whenever learning occurs, there is a relatively permanent change in
behavior; and this change is reflected in the nervous system."
"Donald O. Hebb (1904-1985), a Canadian psychologist, was one
of the first to suggest that, with each learning situation, the structure
of the brain changes."
Question:
What is D. O. Hebb's description of a reverberating
circuit?
Question:
What is D. O. Hebb's description of a consolidation?
[Description] Reverberating circuit and consolidation.
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(251)
(251-252)
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Cognitive Learning
"Thinking about a problem allows you to solve the problem and makes
other behaviors possible; thus, thinking and imagination become
crucial to learning and problem solving."
[Page]
Insight
Question:
What is insight?
(253)
[Example] Insight.
(253-254)
Latent Learning
Question:
What is latent learning?
(254)
[Example] Latent learning.
(LS7lal_04)
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Generative Learning
[Page]
Question:
What is generative learning model of cognitve learning?
(254)
Learning to Learn and Cooperative Learning
Question:
What's the meaning of the following statement?
"Human beings learn how to learn … "
Note the following learning strategies.
„
Elaboration
„
Attention
„
Organization
„
Scheduling
„
Managing anxiety
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(255)
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Learning to Learn and Cooperative Learning
[Page]
„
Expecting success
„
Note taking
„
Learning in groups
Question:
(255)
What is metacognition?
[Examples] Metacognition.
(255-256)
Cognitive Maps
Question:
(LS7lal_04)
What are cognitive maps?
(256)
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Cognitive Maps
(Continued)
[Page]
[Examples] Cognitive map.
(256)
The Theory of Observational Learning
"A truly comprehensive learning theory of behavior must be able to explain
how people learn behaviors that are not taught through reinforcement."
[Illustration] Observational learning.
(257)
Question:
(258)
What is observational learning theory?
[Examples] Observational learning.
(LS7lal_04)
(258-259)
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„ KEY VARIABLES IN OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING.
[Page]
" … all learning is active, takes place within a context, constantly
changes, and depends on the active participation (whether undertaken
consciously or unconsciously) of the learner."
Complete the following:
"Given that people can learn through many sources, psychologists know
that the effectiveness and likelihood of learning are affected by certain
key elements."
"One is the type and …
(259)
"Another element is the learner's …
"A third factor is the situation. People are more likely to …
END
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