PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: STUDENT’S MEMORANDUM
CHAPTER 13
Understanding Human Personality _____________
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
On completion of this chapter, students should be able to
1.
describe the constructs of personality and self;
2.
identify the various sources of data on personality;
3.
differentiate between type and trait theories of personality;
4.
define traits, as operationalized by Airport;
5.
explain the five-factor model of personality;
6.
understand the significance of the consistency paradox;
7.
compare and contrast the major theories of personality, describing important differences
between them;
8.
explain criticisms of each theory of personality; and
9.
explain the significance of the reciprocal relationship between self-esteem and selfpresentation.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. Definitions
A. Personality is the complex set of psychological qualities that influence an
individual's characteristic patterns of behavior, across different situations and over
time.
B. Core aspect of the self is the subjective, private aspect of personality that gives
coherence and order to our behavior.
II. Type and Trait Personality Theories
A. Categorizing by Types. Some personality theories group people into distinct categories called
personality types. Thus, qualitative differences are used to discriminate people.
1.
One of the earliest type theories was proposed by Hippocrates. He
postulated that each humor (basic bodily fluid) was associated with a
specific temperament, or pattern of emotions.
2.
Galen paired Hippocrates' body humors with personality temperaments,
suggesting that personality was determined by the predominant humor:
3.
a)
Blood: Sanguine temperament, cheerful and active
b)
Phlegm: Phlegmatic temperament, apathetic and sluggish
c)
Black bile: Melancholy temperament, sad and brooding
d)
Yellow bile: Choleric temperament, irritable and excitable
Sheldon related physique to temperament, assigning people to one of
three categories, based on body build:
a)
Endomorphic: Fat, soft, round 22
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: STUDENT’S MEMORANDUM
4.
b)
Mesomorphic: Muscular, rectangular, strong
c)
Ectomorphic: Thin, long, fragile
Sulloway proposed a theory of personality based on birth order.
a)
Each child fills a niche within the family.
b) Firstborn children fill the most convenient niche; they identify
with their parents.
c)
Later-born children must find different niches, and, thus, are
usually more open to experience and deviance.
B. Describing with Traits
1.
Traits are enduring personal qualities or attributes that predispose
individuals to behave consistently across situations.
2.
Allport's Trait Approach
a)
Allport posited that each individual has a unique combination
of traits, the building blocks of personality. Three kinds of traits
have been identified:
(i) Cardinal traits are those around which the individual organizes his or her life.
(ii) Central traits represent an individuals major characteristics.
(iii) Secondary traits are specific, personal features that help predict the individual's
behavior, but are less useful for understanding personality.
b) Allport's interest was in discovery of the unique combinations
of these traits that made each individual a singular entity. He
viewed personality structures rather than environmental
conditions to be the critical determinants of individual
behavior.
3.
Identifying Universal Trait Dimensions
a)
Cattell proposed sixteen factors that provide the underlying
source of surface behaviors we use to describe personality.
b) Eysenck derived three broad personality dimensions:
c)
4.
(i) Extroversion: internal versus external orientation (ii) Neuroticism: emotionally
stable versus unstable (iii) Psychoticism: kind and considerate versus aggressive and
antisocial
Eysenck proposed that personality differences on these
dimensions were caused by genetic and biological differences.
Five-Factor Model: Recent research indicates that five factors overlap
Eysenck's original three, best characterize personality structure.
a)
The five-factor model (the "Big Five") illustrates five common trait themes:
(i) Extroversion: Talkative, energetic, and assertive versus
quiet, reserved, and shy (ii) Agreeableness: Sympathetic, kind, and affectionate
versus cold, quarrelsome, and cruel (iii) Conscientiousness: Organized,
responsible, and
cautious versus careless, frivolous, and irresponsible (iv) Neuroticism (emotional
stability): Stable, calm, and
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: STUDENT’S MEMORANDUM
contented versus anxious, unstable, and temperamental (iv) Openness to
experience: Creative, intellectual, and open minded versus simple,
shallow, and unintelligent
b) Factors are not intended as replacement for specific trait terms, rather they
outline a taxonomy that better describes individuals in capturing the
dimensions on which they differ.
C. Traits and Heritability
1.
Behavioral genetics is the study of the degree to which personality traits
and behavior patterns are inherited.
2.
Both adoption and twin heritability studies show that almost all
personality traits are influenced by genetic factors.
D. Do Traits Predict Behaviors?
1.
The consistency paradox refers to the observation that personality
ratings across time and different observers are consistent, while
behavior ratings of a person across situations are not consistent.
2.
Paradox refers to levels of analysis, the use of specific versus summary
types of data, rather than to actual consistency.
3.
Different situations are more or less likely to "allow" expression of
traits, with those situations most likely to influence behavior occurring
when:
4.
a)
Situations are novel
b)
Situations are ill-defined, offering multiple alternatives but
without guidelines on propriety
c)
Situations are stressful or challenging
Forced definition of traits in a more precise manner resulted in the
observation that personality is not about behavioral consistency, rather it
is a matter of patterns of behavioral coherence.
E. Evaluation of Type and Trait Theories
III.
1.
Criticism based on the fact that these theories do not explain how
behavior is generated, or how personality develops; they only identify
and describe characteristics correlated with behavior.
2.
Trait theories typically portray a static (or at least stabilized) view of
personality structure, as it currently exists.
Psychodynamic Theories
A. Common to all psychodynamic personality theories is the assumption that powerful
inner forces shape personality and motivate behavior.
B. Freudian Psychoanalysis
1.
Freud's theory attempts to explain the following:
a)
Origins and course of personality development
b) Nature of the mind
2.
c)
Aspects of abnormal personality
d)
Ways personality can be changed by therapy
It posits the core of personality to be the events within a person's mind
(intrapsychic events under awareness) that motivate behavior.
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: STUDENT’S MEMORANDUM
3.
Freud presumed all behavior was motivated, that so-called chance or
accidents did not cause behavior but were determined by motives.
4.
Drives and Psychosexual Development
a)
Postulating a common biological basis for behavioral patterns
observed in his patients, Freud ascribed motivational source to
psychic energy within each individual.
b) Individuals presumed to have inborn instincts or drives that
were tension systems.
c)
Freud originally postulated two basic drives:
(i) Self-preservation, associated with the ego
(ii) Eros is related to sexual urges and preservation of the
species, and is used with the term libido to identify
source of energy for sexual urges
5.
d)
After World War I, Freud added thanatos, the concept of the
death instinct.
e)
Eros operates from birth and is evident in infants' pleasure in
stimulation of erogenous zones, leading Freud to posit that the
physical source of sexual pleasures changed in an orderly
progression (i.e., five stages of psychosexual development).
Psychic determinism: Assumption that all mental and behavioral
reactions are determined by earlier experiences, leading to belief in
unconscious processes.
a) Freud believed behavior has both manifest and latent content:
(i) Manifest content of behavior refers to what one says, does, and perceives (indicating
awareness).
(ii) Latent content includes neurotic symptoms, dreams, slips of the pens and slips of the tongue at
the unconscious level of information-processing.
6.
The Structure of Personality
a)
Id: Storehouse of fundamental drives, operating irrationally and
on impulse, pushing for expression and immediate gratification;
governed by the pleasure principle
b) Superego: Storehouse of individual's values, including moral
values; corresponds roughly to the notion of conscience
(i) The inner voice of "oughts" and "should nots"
(ii) Includes ego ideal, the individual's view of the kind of
person he/she should strive to become (iii)
Often in conflict with the id
c)
Ego: Reality-based aspect of the self, arbitrating conflict
between id's impulses and superego's demands and choosing
actions that gratify id without undesirable consequences
(i) Governed by the reality principle (ii) When id and superego conflict, ego arranges a
compromise both can live with.
7.
Repression and Ego Defense
a)
Repression is the psychological process that protects the individual from experiencing extreme anxiety
or guilt about
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: STUDENT’S MEMORANDUM
impulses, ideas, or memories that are unacceptable and/or dangerous to
express. This is Ego's most basic defense against being overwhelmed by id
and superego.
b) Ego defense mechanisms are mental strategies used by the ego
to defend itself in the daily conflict between id impulses that
seek expression, and the superego's demand to deny them.
c)
Anxiety is an intense emotional response, triggered when
repressed conflict is about to emerge into consciousness.
Anxiety is a signal that repression is not working and a second
line-of-defense to relieve anxiety is required.
C. Evaluation of Freudian Theory 1.
Bases for
criticism
a)
Conceptually vague and not operationally defined, making
scientific evaluation of the theory difficult if not impossible.
b) Freudian psychoanalytic theory is "good history, but bad
science."
(i) Unreliable predictive power
(ii) Is applied retrospectively
(iii) Typically involves historical reconstruction, rather than
scientific construction of probable actions and
predictable outcomes (iv) Directs focus away from current stimuli that
may be
inducing and maintaining the behavior
2.
c)
Psychoanalytic theory is a developmental theory, b ut never
included studies of children; thus it was based on un-testable
hypotheses.
d)
It minimizes traumatic experiences by reinterpreting memories
of them as fantasies.
e)
The male-as-norm model makes theory androcentric.
Modifications and improvements
a)
Ongoing research reveals much of daily experience is shaped
by processes outside of awareness.
b) Freud's theory is the most complex, compelling, and
comprehensive view of both normal and abnormal personality
functioning, even when its predictions are wrong.
3.
Like any theory, Freud's theory must be treated as unconfirmed until it
can be confirmed, element by element.
D. Post-Freudian Theories
1. Intellectual descendants of Freud made several changes in the psychoanalytic
view of personality:
a)
More emphasis on ego functions
b) Social variables are significant in shaping of personality
c)
Less emphasis on importance of libidinal energy
d)
Extension of personality development beyond childhood,
including the entire life span
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: STUDENT’S MEMORANDUM
2.
Alfred Adler
a)
Alfred Adler rejected the significance of Eros and the pleasure
principle.
b) Adler believed personality structured around striving to
overcome feelings of inferiority.
3.
Karen Horney
a)
Challenged Freud's phallo-centric emphasis
b) Placed greater emphasis on cultural factors
c)
4.
Focused on present character structure rather than on infantile
sexuality
Carl Jung expanded the conception of the unconscious to include:
a)
Collective unconscious: the fundamental psychological truths
shared by the entire human race
b) Archetype: a primitive, symbolic representation of a particular
experience or object, associated with the instinctive tendency
to feel, think about, or experience the object in a special way
(i) Animus, the male archetype
(ii) Anima, the female archetype
(iii)
Mandala, the archetype of the self
c)
IV.
Jung's view of personality as a constellation of compensating
internal forces, in dynamic balance, resulted in analytic
psychology.
Humanistic Theories
A. Humanistic approaches to personality are characterized by the concern for the
integrity of the individual's personal and conscious experience and growth potential.
B. Features of Humanistic Theories
1.
Some humanists believed motivation for behavior derived from the
individual's unique tendencies, both innate and learned, to develop and
change in a positive direction.
2.
Self-actualization, a constant striving to realize one's inherent potential,
to develop one's own capacities and talents
a)
Drive for self-actualization sometimes conflicts with need for approval from the
self and others, especially when the individual feels certain obligations or
conditions must be met to gain approval, as in the following:
(i) Rogers' mandate of unconditional positive regard in parenting
(ii) Horney's idea that people have a "real self that requires favorable
environment to be actualized
3.
Humanistic theories have also been described as holistic, dispositional,
phenomenological, and existential.
a)
Holistic: explains separate acts in terms of entire personalities
b)
Dispositional: focus on innate qualities within the individual
that exert a major influence over the direction behavior will
take
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: STUDENT’S MEMORANDUM
c)
Phenomenological: emphasize the individual's frame of
reference and subjective view of reality, rather than the frame
of an observer or a therapist
d)
Existentialist: focus on higher mental processes
C. Evaluation of Humanistic Theories
1.
Criticisms
a)
Concepts are fuzzy, and difficult to explore empirically
b) Traditionally, did not focus on particular characteristics of the
individual
2.
c)
Theories were more about human nature and qualities shared by
all people, than about individual personality or the basis of
difference among individuals
d)
Emphasis of the role of the self as source of experience and
action neglects environmental variables that also influence
behavior
Contemporary research emphasizes psychobiography, "the systematic
use of psychological theory to transform a life into a coherent and
illuminating story."
V. Social-Learning and Cognitive Theories
A. Introduction
1.
Learning theory orientation looks to environmental circumstances that
control behavior
2.
Personality is viewed as the sum of overt and covert responses that are
reliably elicited by the individual's reinforcement history
3.
Learning by social imitation is by observation of others' behavior,
without actual performance of the response
4.
Contemporary theories emphasize importance of both cognitive and
behavioral processes
B. Mischel's Cognitive - Affective Personality Theory
1.
Response to a specific environmental input depends on a person's
a)
Encoding strategies, how incoming information is processed
(i) Selective attending
(ii) Categorization
(iii) Making associations
b)
c)
2.
Expectancies and beliefs: anticipation of likely outcomes for
given actions in particular situations
Affects: feelings and emotions, physiological responses
d)
Goals and values: outcomes and affective states valued by the
individual
e)
Competencies and self-regulatory plans, rules developed by the
individual for guiding performance, setting goals, and
evaluating effectiveness
Nature of variables for a given individual result from history of
observations and interactions with others and with inanimate aspects of
the physical environment
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: STUDENT’S MEMORANDUM
3.
Beliefs about others' personalities comes from tracking the way different situations bring out
different behaviors.
C. Bandura's Cognitive Social-Learning Theory
1.
Combines principles of learning with an emphasis on human
interactions in social settings
2.
Stresses the cognitive processes involved in acquiring and maintaining
patterns of behavior and, thus, personality
3.
Critical constructs
a)
Reciprocal determinism: the examining of all components if
one wishes to understand human behavior, personality, and
social ecology completely
b) Observational learning: the process by which the individual
changes his or her behavior, based on observations of another
individual's behavior
c)
Self-efficacy: the belief that one can perform adequately in a
particular situation. Self-efficacy judgments include the
following:
(i) Vicarious experience (ii) Persuasion
(iii) Monitoring of emotional arousal when thinking about a task
4.
Self-regulatory efficacy are beliefs in one's ability to regulate their own
behavior
5.
Self-efficacy acknowledges the importance of the environment,
including perceptions of supportiveness or unsupportiveness of that
environment
D. Cantor's Social Intelligence Theory
1.
Social intelligence refers to the expertise the individual brings to his or
her experience of life tasks.
2.
Three types of individual differences are defined:
3.
a)
Choice of life goals
b)
Knowledge relevant to social interactions
c)
Strategies for implementing goals
Social intelligence offers a new perspective on how personality predicts
consistency.
E. Evaluation of Social-Learning and Cognitive Theories
1.
One set of criticisms points out that theories generally overlook emotion as an important component
of personality.
a)
Emphasize rational, information-processing variables
b) Emotions are perceived as by-products of thoughts and
behavior, instead of being assigned specific, independent
importance
c)
Theories do not fully recognize the impact of unconscious
motivation on both behavior and affect
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: STUDENT’S MEMORANDUM
2.
VI.
A second set of criticisms focuses on vague explanations relative to creation of
personal constructs and competencies.
a)
Cognitive theories suggest that individual's perception of
current behavior serves to obscure the individual's history.
b)
Kelly's theory is more a conceptual system than a theory, as it
focuses on structure and processes, saying little about content
of personal constructs.
Self Theories
A. William James was the earliest advocate of theories addressing how each individual
manages his or her sense of self. James identified three components of the selfexperience:
1.
Material me: the bodily self, along with surrounding physical objects
2.
Social me: the individual's awareness of how others view him or her
3.
Spiritual me: the self that monitors private thoughts and feelings
B. Dynamic Aspects of Self-Concepts
1.
Self-concept is a dynamic mental structure that motivates, interprets,
organizes, mediates, and regulates intrapersonal and interpersonal
behaviors and processes.
2.
Components of self-concept include
a)
Memories about one's self
b) Beliefs about one's traits, motives, values, and abilities
c)
Ideal self: the self that one would most like to become
d)
Possible selves that one contemplates enacting
e)
Positive or negative evaluations of one's self (self-esteem)
f)
Beliefs about what others think of one's self
3.
Self-concept includes schemas about the self, self-schemas, that allow
one to organize information about one's self and influence the way one
processes information about others.
4.
Possible selves are "ideal selves we would very much like to become...
the selves we could become and the selves we're afraid of becoming."
C. Self-Esteem and Self-Presentation
1.
Self-esteem is a generalized evaluation of the self, influencing thoughts, moods, and
behavior.
a)
Low self-esteem may be characterized (in part) by less
certainty about the self and may include the feeling that one
does not know much about one's self.
b) Doubt in one's ability to perform a task may see engagement in
self-handicapping behavior, in which one deliberately
sabotages one's own performance, for the following purposes:
(i) Having a ready-made excuse for failure that does not
imply lack of ability, (ii) Failure can be blamed on low effort,
without finding
out if one really had the ability to make it.
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: STUDENT’S MEMORANDUM
2.
Self-presentation is an aspect of self-esteem, explaining behavioral differences
between individuals with high and low self-esteem.
a)
Individuals with high self-esteem present themselves to the
world as ambitious, aggressive risk takers.
b) Individuals with low self-esteem present themselves as
cautious and prudent.
c)
Both of these presentations are for public consumption.
d)
Self-monitoring, a trait related to one's habitual style of selfpresentation, is the tendency to regulate behavior to meet
social demands or to create a desired social impression.
D. The Cultural Construction of Self
1.
Individualistic cultures encourage independent construals of self.
2.
Collectivist cultures encourage interdependent construals of self.
E. Evaluation of Self-Theories
VII.
1.
Self theories succeed at capturing the individual's concept of their own
personality and how they wish to be perceived by others.
2.
Critics of self theory approach to personality argue against its limitless
boundaries. Because many issues are relevant to the self and to the selfconcept, it is not always clear which factors are most important for
predicting behavior.
3.
Emphasis on the self as a social construct is not entirely consistent with
evidence that some facets of personality may be heritable.
Comparing Personality Theories
A. The Five Most Important Differences in Assumptions about Personality
1.
Heredity versus Environment
a)
Trait theories are split on this issue.
b) Freudian theory depends heavily on heredity.
c)
Humanistic, social-learning, cognitive, and self theories
emphasize either
(i) Environment as a determinant of behavior (ii) Interaction with
environment as a source of personality development and differences
2.
Learning Processes versus Innate Laws of Behavior
a)
Trait theories are (still) divided.
b) Freudian theory favors inner determinant view.
3.
c)
Humanists posit change as a result of experience.
d)
Social-learning, cognitive, and self theories posit that behavior
and personality change as a result of learning.
Emphasis on Past, Present, or Future
a)
Trait theories emphasize past causes.
b) Freudian theory stresses past events of early childhood.
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: STUDENT’S MEMORANDUM
c)
Social-learning theories focuses on past reinforcements and
present contingencies.
d) Humanistic theories emphasize present phenomenal reality or
future goals.
e)
4.
Cognitive and self theories emphasize past and present (and
future, in the instance of goal-setting).
Consciousness versus Unconsciousness
a)
Trait theories pay little attention to this distinction.
b) Freudian theory emphasizes unconscious processes.
5.
c)
Humanistic, social-learning, and cognitive theories emphasize
conscious processes.
d)
Self theories are unclear.
Inner Disposition versus Outer Situation
a)
Trait theories emphasize dispositional factors.
b) Social-learning theories emphasize situational factors.
c)
All others allow interaction between person-based and
situation-based variables.
B. Theoretical Contributions to Understanding of Human Personality
VIII.
1.
Trait theories provide a catalog, describing parts and structures.
2.
Psychodynamic theories add a powerful engine and fuel to get the
vehicle moving.
3.
Humanistic theories put the person in the driver's seat.
4.
Social-learning theories supply the steering wheel, directional signals,
and other regulation equipment.
5.
Cognitive theories add reminders that the way the trip is planned,
organized, and remembered will be affected by the mental map the
driver selects for the journey.
6.
Self theories remind the driver to consider the image his or her driving
ability projects to back-seat drivers and pedestrians.
Assessing Personality
A. Objective Tests
1.
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), was developed using empirical
strategy, and is the most frequently used personality test.
a)
Items are included on scales only if they clearly differentiated
between two groups.
b) Each item demonstrates its validity by being answered
similarly by members within each group, but differently
between groups.
c)
There are ten clinical scales, each differentiating a different
clinical group.
d)
Validity scales detect suspicious response patterns.
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: STUDENT’S MEMORANDUM
e)
2.
There was a major revision over the last ten years, resulting in the MMPI-2, added fifteen
new content scales.
The NEO-Personality Inventory (NEO-PI)
a)
Measures the five-factor model of personality. The five
dimensions include the following:
(i) Neuroticism (ii) Extraversion (iii) Openness
(iv) Agreeableness (v) Conscientiousness
b) A new inventory based on the five-factor model, The Big Five
Questionnaire (BFQ), is designed to have validity across
cultures.
B. Projective Tests
1. Basics
a)
Projective tests have no predetermined range of responses, but
use ambiguous stimuli.
b) They are among the assessment devices most commonly used
by psychological practitioners.
c)
2.
They are used more frequently outside the United States than
are objective tests because they are less sensitive to language
variation.
Specifics
a)
The Rorschach test, developed by Hermann Rorschach, uses
ambiguous stimuli that are symmetrical inkblots, with
responses scored on three major features:
(i) Location or part of the card mentioned in the
response—does respondent refer to the whole stimulus
or only part of it? (ii) Content of the response, nature of the object and
activities seen (iii) Determinants, those aspects of the card that prompted
response (iv) Correctly utilized, test is both reliable and permits
valid assessments about the underlying personality
b) The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), developed by Henry
Murray
(i) Respondents shown pictures of ambiguous scenes and asked to generate stories
about them, describing what people are thinking and doing, what led up to each
event, and how each situation will end
(ii) Individual administering test evaluates structure and content of stories, as well as
behavior of individual telling them, attempting to discover respondent's major
concerns motivations, and personality characteristics
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: STUDENT’S MEMORANDUM
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1.
Have the class suppose that there was no continuity in behavior or perso nality and that we
faced each situation anew, without reference to prior experiences and reactions. Discuss
with the class the changes this scenario might evoke in one's self -concept.
2.
What might be the advantage or disadvantage to describing the personalit y of a
developmentally delayed child using the trait orientation? What about use of the type
orientation? Ask the class for a show of hands indicating how many prefer each perspective.
Have individual class members indicate why they prefer one perspective to the other.
3.
In what sense does our personality limit our freedom to act? In what sense does our
personality give us greater freedom to act than a cat or dog enjoys?
4.
Discuss the five-factor model of personality. Aside from the obvious applications in t he
mental health industry, ask the class what other applications they see for this model. Have
students expand on their perspective.
5.
Of the various approaches to personality detailed in this chapter, which do students find to be
most satisfying in a personal sense? Is this an emotional or an intellectual choice? Discuss
the implications.
6.
We all assume somewhat different roles and personalities in different social situations. If you
could be only one of these people, which would you choose? How would ot her people's
reactions to you be changed in those situations where you now displayed a new set of
characteristics?
7.
A surprisingly large percentage of college students (about 50 percent) describe themselves as
shy. Can such a self-imposed label be changed by the time one reaches college age? If so,
how? How does someone come to be shy? What is the difference between being a shy
person and being situationally shy?
8.
You might want to discuss Judith Rich Harris's book, The Nurture Assumption: Why
Children Turn Out the Way They Do; Parents Matter Less than You Think and Peers Matter
More, in which she argues that peers, not parents, play the most important role in shaping a
child's personality. As the text explains, there is abundant research that consistently
indicates that parents play a large, if not critical, role in shaping a child's personality. As the
text suggests, if parents had little or no impact, then there would be no observable birth order
effects. Additionally, Harris ignores the fact that since children tend to grow up in
neighborhoods where many families have similar values and behavior standards, they are
surrounded by other children with fairly similar values to their own. Children may also self select friends based on how similar their attitudes and interests are to their own. While peers
clearly have some effect, especially during the middle school and high school years, there is
no evidence that the effects of peer influence override parental influences in the long run to
the degree argued by Harris. How do students feel about this? Do their own experiences
confirm or deny Harris's theories? Why or why not?
SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL
Harry Stack Sullivan and the Interpersonal Relations Theory of
Personality
The founder of this position, Harry Stack Sullivan, was an interesting individual, and his areas of concentration
were the following:
•
The dynamics of personality
•
The dynamics and treatment of schizophrenia (he coined the term and concept of the
"schizophrenic mother")
Sullivan posited his theory of personality within the context of developmental psychology, feeling that
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: STUDENT’S MEMORANDUM
to be the only viable avenue for his perspective. Sullivan felt that it was completely preposterous to assume that
human behavior was determined solely by instinct, feeling instead that human nature was so pliable and adaptable
that even "the most fantastic social rules and regulations [could] be lived up to, if they were properly inculcated in
the young." Sullivan concluded that personality was shaped primarily by social forces, with the lengthy period of
dependence in childhood making the child particularly susceptible to the influence of others. He proposed an
incredibly powerful need for interpersonal relationships, to the extent that he believed individuals who were
deprived of interpersonal contact for extended periods would undergo deterioration in their basic personality
structure.
Consider Sullivan's definition of personality for a moment (the relatively enduring pattern of recurrent interpersonal
situations that characterize a human life). The significant aspect of this definition is that Sullivan intended it to
include those interpersonal relationships that are illusory as well as those which are real. So, in Sullivan's theory,
even the recluse and the psychotic have a "personality." Many other theories seem to apply only to the normally
functioning psyche.
Sullivan and Freud shared a belief that human beings strive toward a reduction of inner tension, that the ideal human
state is one of euphoria—a condition of total equilibrium. Sullivan saw tension as the opposite of euphoria,
reciprocally related to it, and as a state similar to a state of terror. Of course, both extremes can only be approached
and neither exists in nature; we exist somewhere on the continuum be tween the two. He posited seven specific
epochs or stages through which personality may develop, each epoch representing an optimal time for certain
innate capacities to reach fruition. Since he posits "epochs," you can see that Sullivan was a stage theori st.
Epoch 1: Infancy. Infancy begins at birth and continues until the appearance of articulate speech. This time is
highlighted by the influence of maternal tenderness and anxiety. The oral zone is important here, as it brings food
and sustenance, as well as breathing, crying, and thumb-sucking.
Nursing provides the infant with its first prototaxic mode or experience in interpersonal relationships. This is a
primitive mode of experiencing internal and external stimuli, is prominent in early infancy, consists of successive
momentary discrete states, and cannot be communicated to others or formulated into symbols (i.e., language).
Around twelve to eighteen months of life, trial-and-error language begins to appear, with early sounds being
imitations of those in the environment This represents the parataxic mode, and it ushers in the second stage of
personality development. The parataxic mode is a way of experiencing internal and external stimuli that is
characterized by use of private symbols and a lack of the conventional concepts of cause and effect.
Past infancy and moving into childhood, we see the development of the self -system, the organized perception of
one's self. The self-system includes the desirable "good-me" and the undesirable "bad-me." The system is a result of
experiences with one's own body and the reflected opinions of significant others, and has anxiety reduction as its
primary goal.
Epoch 2: Childhood. Children now begin to develop use of language and to acquire responses for averting
anxiety and parental punishment. These responses include deception, rationalization, behaving in the way parents
expect in order to please them, and increasing the use of sublimation. Of course, some punishment does inevitably
occur, and this results in growth of the "bad-me" part of the self-system. As long as parents continue to reinforce the
"good-me" part of the child's self-system, the child will adjust normally.
Epoch 3: The Juvenile Era. This epoch begins with the emergence of the need for playmates, which is about
the time the child enters school. The syntaxic mode becomes prominent now, and is the most highly developed mode
of experiencing internal and external stimuli. This mode is characterized by use of socially understood symbols (i.e.,
words and numbers), and by the understanding of conventional ideas of cause and effect. According to Sullivan, the
ability to live with and among other people will have developed by the end of this epoch.
Epoch 4: Preadolescence. This stage begins with the emergence of the need for a more intimate relationship
with a specific member of the same sex; Sullivan called this individual the chum. The need for the chum appears
around ages eight to ten years, and Sullivan considered this relationship critical to the child's future ability to form
intimate relationships of both a sexual and nonsexual nature during the adult years. Sullivan felt that an effective
chumship could be instrumental
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in altering excessive egocentricity (such as tendencies to pout when things go wrong), ov er dependence and
irresponsibility, and the misguided belief that we should be liked by everyone. He saw the chum as a sort of reality
check between childhood and adolescence. In addition, during this period, we see the formation of the first
structured social groups, such as scout troops.
Epoch 5: Early Adolescence. This epoch begins with puberty and the appearance of the lust dynamism that
leads to the desire for a close relationship with a member of the opposite sex. Sullivan felt this period to be a gre at
one for maladjustment, due to the societal restrictions on the adolescent's ability to satisfy the lust dynamism. He
also noted that the adolescent's early attempts at heterosexual relationships can (and often do) lead to embarrassing
outcomes, such as impotence, frigidity, premature ejaculation, any and all of which can lead to serious damage to
one's self-esteem. He felt that parental support during this time was critical to the successful transition of this period.
If the attempts at heterosexual relationships are successful, and they usually are, then the child has taken another
positive step up the ladder of interpersonal relations.
Epoch 6: Late Adolescence. Late adolescence originates with the achievement of satisfying sexual activity.
Of course, the adolescent is now functioning (at least part of the time) in the realm of reality, such as working and
paying taxes, and having increased social responsibilities (helping care for an elderly grandparent or a younger
sibling, moving away from home and accepting the concurrent adult life-roles). Sullivan feels that those adolescents
having the experience of attending college have an advantage. They have an extra few years to make this transition
beyond their high-school graduation.
Epoch 7: Adulthood. Harry Stack Sullivan did not say a great deal about adulthood, except that it represented
the completion of personality development. The reason Sullivan did not say much about adulthood is that he was a
psychiatrist, and psychiatrists do not get many opportunities to observe normally functioning adults. Sullivan was
smart enough to know that what he observed in the pathological adult population was not applicable to the rest of
the nonpathological population.
Nature versus Nurture
An issue that has dominated developmental psychology for years is the nature versus nurture controversy. This issue
is directly related to any discussion of personality as well. You might ask students how much of personality they
believe is genetically inherited (nature) and how much is learned from the environment (nurture). While generally,
researchers argue that both appear to play a role in personality, you might point out that how much of a role each
plays may depend on what part of personality you are discussing. For example, genetics clearly plays an important
role in nervous system development, which can affect traits such as introversion. On the other hand, the environment
(nurture) plays an important role in emotional maturation, as evidenced by Harlow and Spitz's studies on the effects
of early isolation. Ultimately, one of the best ways to sum up the research on this controversy is to say that nature
sets a potential range of development, and nurture determines where, within that range, a person will end up. With
some aspects of personality, nature sets a wide range of development, giving the environment plenty of room to
have an impact. With other aspects of personality, nature sets a narrow range of development, leaving the
environment room for only a minor impact. With most aspects of personality, nature appears to set a moderate
range of potential development.
Personality; Add Women and Stir!
The topic of personality serves as an excellent base for discussing the feminist perspective within the field of
psychology. Torrey (1987) has incorporated a five-phase sequence of sex-integration, proposed by Mclntosh, into the
psychology of personality.
Phase 1: Womenless Psychology. Torrey provides several interesting examples of womenless
psychology. For example, only four of the 707 pages of Hall and Lindzey' s text on personality are devoted to a
woman's theory of personality (Karen Horney's). Sullivan, Murray, McClelland, and Kohlberg based their work
on studies of men, although the theories usually are described as univers al.
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Phase 2: Adding Women to Psychology. In this phase, women's work is included in the field of
psychology, but usually within the overall male-oriented paradigm. Karen Horney's contributions within the
psychoanalytic field would represent this phase.
Phase 3: Women as Inherently Different and Deviant. Viewing men as the norm and women as
special exceptions occurs in Phase 3. Freud's view of mature female sexuality is used to illustrate the point.
Although aware of the sexual role of the clitoris, Freud insisted that mature sexuality is located in the vagina.
Regarding research, Torrey notes that when differences did appear, psychologists have usually interpreted them
as showing female inferiority. Witkin, for example, described the holistic style of perception he found in his
female participants as a liability to thinking analytically, rather than as a capacity for global synthesis (Torrey,
1987, p. 157).
Phase 4: Taking the Psychology of Women Seriously. This phase involves the feminist study of
women, their development and social rules. Gilligan's challenge to Kohlberg's theory represents this stage, as
does Homer's extension of achievement motivation (McClelland).
Phase 5: All the Human Experience, Psychology Redefined. A paradigmatic shift would be
necessary within psychology to describe the human experience as a discipline. Until extensive work concerning
women is accomplished, it will be difficult to envision the changes within the field. Do different theories
represent different phases? Are men and women really so different? If so, what are the social, political, and
economic implications of personality differences? Since women are becoming the majority in the field of
psychology, what impact do you think this will have on the psychology of the twenty-first century?
BIOGRAPHICAL PROFILE
Gordon Willard Allport (1897-1967)
As a student, Gordon Allport was deeply influenced by the writings of William James, whom he resembles in his
style of investigation and his uncompromising interest in the individual as self. Allport was born in Montezuma,
Indiana, in 1897, one of four children. His father, a physician, ran his clinic in the Allport home. He indulged his
strong belief in the imposition of discipline and responsibility at an early age by assigning each of his sons a task to
carry out in the clinic. Mrs. Allport, a former schoolteacher, introduced the children to philosophy, providing them
with the foundations of the classics and encouraging their independent inquiry into the nature of things. She was a
religious woman and stressed the importance of faith. Allport himself has described his upbringing as one of "plain
Protestant piety and hard work."
On completion of high school, Allport followed his brother Floyd to Harvard . His education was interrupted briefly
when he served a short time in the armed forces during World War I. He eventually earned his B.A. in 1919. Gordon
did not immediately pursue a graduate degree, choosing instead to teach in Istanbul, Turkey, but returned to
Harvard a year later to earn his doctorate in psychology at the age of twenty-four. He did not remain in the United
States for long, again feeling the need to travel and study abroad. This time Allport spent two years at large
universities in England and Germany. When he returned, he secured a permanent academic position at Harvard.
Allport's most significant book, Personality: A Psychological Interpretation, was published in 1937, and enjoyed a
great reception. (The book was thoroughly revised twenty four years later under the title Pattern and Growth in
Personality.) His approach to understanding human personality as a growing, changing system of traits, attitudes,
and habits became well known. Allport is responsible for emphasizing the importance of both the concept of
attitudes in social psychology and the concept of personality traits.
From 1939 to 1949, he was the Harvard University editor of the Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology and
was elected president of the American Psychological Association in 1939. He co-founded the Department of Social
Relations at Harvard in 1946, and, thereafter, was closely identified with the "third force" in psychology, the
humanistic psychologists. Allport received the Distinguished Scientific Contribution Aw ard in 1964, and continued
to pursue his research and writing until his death in 1967.
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: STUDENT’S MEMORANDUM
Hans Jargon Eysenck (b, 1916)
Hans Eysenck, the grandson of a medical doctor and an only child, was born in Berlin, Germany. In order to gain
admission to the University of Berlin, Eysenck was required to join the Nazi party as a member of the SS. He
tolerated these circumstances for only a short time, leaving eventually for France and, finally, England. Eysenck
studied psychology at the University of London, obtaining his Ph.D. in 1940. He became director of the psychology
department at Maudsley Hospital in London after World War II, and has traveled often to the United States as a
visiting professor.
Eysenck's contributions to psychology have been varied. He is regarded most for his empirical and theoretical work
on personality and his contributions to behavior therapy. He is particularly well known for his personality test
battery, the Eysenck Personality Inventory, and for his critical review, in 1952, of the valu e and effectiveness of
psychotherapy, especially psychoanalysis, in the treatment of psychological disorders. Eysenck founded the journal
Behavior Research and Therapy in 1962, and is the author of more than 350 books and articles, including the
Biological Basis of Personality (1964) and Personality, Structure and Measurement (1969).
Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939)
Sigmund Freud was born in Pribor, Czechoslovakia, in 1856. Although Freud was a gifted student, it took him eight
years to finish his medical degree at the University of Vienna, partly because he was interested in so many topics.
Freud first pursued a career as a neurologist, but financial concerns forced him into general medical practice. In
cooperation with his friend Joseph Breuer, Freud began to treat hysterical women. This is unusual, because at the
time there was no known cure for hysteria, which is now known as a conversion disorder. Through trial and error
and feedback from clients, Breuer and Freud developed the technique known as psychoanaly sis.
The fundamental rule of psychoanalysis is honesty; clients must relay all thoughts and feelings uncensored to the
analyst. Clients then follow their stream of thought wherever it may lead, a process known as free association. In the
course of free association, clients often uncover traumatic events in the past, and, upon reliving these events, often
experience relief from their symptoms. Freud's first major work, The Interpretation of Dreams (1900), detailed the
process of dream interpretation, which he felt was the "royal road to the unconscious." Although it took six years to
sell the first 600 copies printed, this work would go through eight additional printings during Freud's lifetime.
Although the technique of psychoanalysis is perhaps Freud's most important legacy, he made many other
substantial contributions to psychology. These include the recognition of the importance of sexuality and
unconscious processes, a fully developed system of personality, and an appreciation for the conflict between
individual desires and the constraints of society. His work has influenced so many aspects of our thinking that he is
often not given full credit for the development of his ideas. Freud's many detractors are quick to point out that his
theories are not based on empirical research. While this is certainly true, just because they lack empirical evidence
does not mean that they are wrong. It just means that they are less likely to be right. Because of the breadth of his
intellectual contributions, he remains the most cited psychologist in Psychology and Life and most comparable texts.
Carl Gustav Jung (1875 - 1961)
Carl Jung was born in Kesswil, Switzerland, the son of a pastor. From childhood, Jung was fascinated by the
problems of religion and spiritualism. He received his M.D. from the University of Basel in 1901, with an emphasis
in psychiatry. Having read Freud's The Interpretation of Dreams, he sought the master out and soon became Freud's
most famous disciple. An eventual split between Freud and Jung occurred, prompted by Jung's belief that the
psychosexual theory of development was too restrictive.
Jung advanced his own brand of psychology, known as analytic psychology, introducing the concepts of the
collective unconscious and archetypes. Like Freud, Jung developed a large following of loyal adherents. In his later
writings, Jung returned often to an analysis of religion and mysticism, addressing themes that had fascinated him
from his youth.
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: STUDENT’S MEMORANDUM
Neal Miller (b, 1909)
Neal Miller has been in the vanguard of American psychology for more than thirty years. He sees himself as a
"builder of bridges between disciplines" and, indeed, his contributions run the gamut from social-learning theory
and frustration-aggression hypotheses, to physiological research into brain stimulation and control of autonomic
responses through biofeedback.
Miller received his undergraduate training at the University of Washington and his master's degree at Stanford
University. In 1935, he earned his doctorate at Yale, the school with whic h he would be associated for the next
thirty years. In light of the strongly behavioristic approach his research has taken, it is interesting to note that he
received considerable formal training in psychoanalytic theory and practice. Perhaps his participation at the Institute
of Human Relations at Yale, where he was in contact with anthropologists and sociologists primarily concerned
with the influence of the social milieu on the individual, impressed him with the limitations of analysis.
With the publication of two landmark books, Social Learning and Imitation in 1941, and Personality and
Psychotherapy in 1950, he and his colleague, John Dollard, created a sensation. These works demonstrated that
social learning, psychoanalytic treatment, and the origins of neurosis could be understood in terms of classical
learning theory. The intelligent, innovative nature of Miller's accomplishment brought him a Newcomb - Cleveland
Prize in 1951, and a Warren Medal in 1954.
In the same year that Personality and Psychotherapy was published, Miller applied his theories of behavior
modification to victims of combat neurosis with a high degree of success, essentially abandoning the psychoanalytic
approach to therapy. True to his self-portrait as a "bridge-builder," he translated the implications of his research and
therapeutic techniques to a more physiologically based line of inquiry, investigation into the physiology of learned
responses. He used electrical stimulation of parts of the brains of animal participants to elicit motivational
sensations such as fear, pain, and pleasure, and demonstrated that an electrical or chemical stimulation of the brain
may bring about sensations of hunger. Following the example of Pavlov, he continues to explore a wide range of
learned visceral responses. In accord with what he has already discovered about learned visceral responses, he
designed a lightweight electromechanical instrument that alerts children with scoliosis whenever they lapse into
incorrect posture. The results of this treatment have been encouraging.
Although he is now an emeritus professor, Miller remains active in his research and conceptual contributions to
the field of behavioral medicine. Miller served as president of the American Psychological Association in 1961,
was awarded the National Medal of Science, and has been elected to the National Academy of Sciences.
Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
Carl Rogers, the founder of client-centered therapy and one of the best-known figures in humanistic psychology, is
often described by friends as the "man who gave people permission to be themselves." A firm believer in the basic
goodness of human beings, Rogers based his approach to therapy and education on the assumption that individuals,
when given the proper opportunity and encouragement, can decide for themselves the best course to follow. This
doctrine placed the mild-mannered Rogers squarely in the face of controversy throughout his career, as he attempted
to go beyond the mere formulation of pleasant-sounding philosophies, to implement his notions in the context of
social institutions.
A student of agriculture, Rogers made an abrupt change of plans after traveling to China with a student religious
group. He began to see that he would only truly satisfy his needs and interests in a milieu that encouraged
communication and offered him an opportunity to help others. He enrolled in a theological seminary, but soon found
the emphasis on dogma and hierarchy to be contradictory to his highly personal approach. He switched to the study
of psychology, a discipline in which he felt he would be better able to develop and act on his ideas. He received
his bachelor's degree from the University of Wisconsin in 1924. After graduating from Teachers' College at
Columbia University, he became director of the Rochester Child Guidance Clinic in New York and there began to
construct the techniques that would eventually evolve into Rogerian, or client -centered, therapy.
Rogers finally joined forces with a group of like-minded psychologists at the Western Institute for Behavioral
Sciences in California. This nonprofit center is involved in several projects, including a
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tremendously popular two-week summer course of encounter groups. An even more ambitious project is designed to
put physicians in closer touch with the "human" and ethical aspects of medical practice.
Throughout his career, Rogers continued to believe that the purpose of therapy was to assist the client in realizing
his or her potential, and he conducted some of the first empirical studies of th e process and effectiveness of
psychotherapy. He was instrumental in elevating humanistic psychology to its stature as a "third force" in
psychology, and was elected president of the American Psychological Association in 1947.
In spite of all his successes, Rogers continued to be criticized from many sides. Even friends and colleagues
described his views as overly optimistic—particularly his faith that tense situations such as racial confrontations
can be resolved by person-centered therapy techniques. Nevertheless, Rogers, if anything, grew more optimistic.
During the last few years of his life, in response to the growing popularity of his client -centered therapy, he trained
facilitators (therapists) in Germany, Japan, and Brazil. His notable works include Client-Centered Therapy (1951),
and On Becoming a Person (1961).
TIMELINE
Year
Event
1900
Freud published what many believe was his greatest work, The Interpretation of
Dreams.
1913
Carl Jung broke ranks with Freud and soon became a major figure in the
development of an alternative psychoanalytic theory, analytic psychology.
1914-1918
World War I was fought.
1920
Alfred Adler published the Practice and Theory of Individual Psychology, outlining
his views on the social ramifications of psychoanalysis.
1921
Hermann Rorschach developed his famous projective test, composed of a series of
symmetrical inkblots.
1929
The Great Depression began in America.
1937
Gordon Airport published Personality: A Psychological Interpretation, outlining his
trait theory of personality.
1937
Karen Horney published The Neurotic Personality of Our Time, describing her
theory of personality.
1938
Henry Murray published Explorations in Personality and developed a projective test
called the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), a series of black-and-white drawings
of a person or persons in ambiguous situations.
1939 -1945
World War II was fought.
1940s
Carl Rogers developed his ideas on the humanistic view of personality
development.
1943
Starke Hathaway and J. C. McKinley published the first edition of the MMPI,
which soon became the most widely used personality test ever.
1950
Raymond Cattell developed the 16 PF, which later became a widely used
personality inventory.
1951
Carl Rogers published Client-Centered Therapy, explaining how his ideas could be
applied to therapy.
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: STUDENT’S MEMORANDUM
1954
Abraham Maslow published Motivation and Personality, explaining the relationship
of his hierarchy of needs to both motivation and personality development.
1957
Sputnik, the first satellite, was launched.
1963
Albert Bandura, with R. H. Walters, published Social Learning Personality and
Development, explaining the influences of social learning on personality growth.
1973
Walter Mischel challenged the basic idea that personality traits have crosssituational consistency, and proposed a cognitive-social learning theory of
personality.
1980
Ronald Reagan was elected President.
1986
Albert Bandura published Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social
Cognitive Theory, presenting his influential self-efficacy theory.
1989
The University of Minnesota published the second edition of the MMPI, which was
standardized on a larger, more heterogeneous group of people than the first edition.
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READINGS
Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. The leading proponent for understanding personality from a socialcognitive orientation presents his influential self-efficacy theory.
Cantor, N. & Harlow, R. E. (1994). Personality, Strategic Behavior, and Daily-Life Problem Solving. Current
Directions in Psychological Science, 3 (6), 169-172. A look at the problem-solving efforts used by individuals
as they work toward solving the "life tasks" in their daily lives.
Carlson, J. F. (1989). Psychosexual Pursuit. Enhancing Learning of Theoretical Psychoanalytic Constructs.
Teaching of Psychology, 16, 82-84. Carlson developed a game that can accommodate as many as 50 players.
This article reproduces a game board on which players move through the stages of psychosexual development
and eventually become adults. Play money represents psychic energy; the goal is to retain as much psychic
energy as possible for adult life tasks. Defense mechanisms and fixation are incorporated into the game rules.
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1992). Perspectives on Personality, 2nd Ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Presents very
readable and current coverage of personality psychology by two of the better-known researchers in the area;
includes much of their own research.
Costa, P., & McCrae, R. (1998). Trait Theories of Personality. New York: Plenum Press. The fathers of the "Big
Five" personality theory make an argument for their system of personal ity.
Evans, R. (1981). Dialogue with C. G. Jung. New York: Praeger Special Studies/Praeger Scientific. Dr. Richard
Evans conducts a one-on-one interview with Carl Jung, exploring Jung's relationship with Freud and his
reactions to various psychological issues and concepts.
Ewen, R. (1998). An Introduction to Theories of Personality (5th Ed.). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
An excellent introduction to the field of personality. Presents the theories of eleven major figures in
personality psychology.
Eysenck, H. (1998). Dimensions of Personality. New Brunswick, Transaction Publishers. The accumulation
of Eysenck's fifty years of research on personality. Intended for students of psychology, psychiatry and
sociology.
Freud, S. (1961). The Ego and the Id. New York: Norton. Original work published in 1923. Translated by James
Strachey.
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: STUDENT’S MEMORANDUM
Freud, S. (1963). An Outline of Psychoanalysis. New York: W. W. Norton. Original work published 1940.
Translated by James Strachey.
Gay, P. (1988). Freud: A Life for Our Time. New York: W.W. Norton. The definitive biography on Freud. Provides
rich details about his life, and presents his ideas in easily accessible form.
Hall, C, & Lindzey, G. (1978). Theories of Personality, (3rd Ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. A classic text on
personality theory.
Hampson, S. E. (2000). Advances in Personality Psychology: Volume 1. Taylor and Francis Books LTD. This book
is a collection of critical reviews of key areas of personality psychology and integrative accounts of important
work by internationally recognized experts in the field.
Hogan, R. (1986). What Every Student Should Know About Personality. In V. P. Makosky (Ed.), The G. Stanley
Hall Lectures Vol. 6. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. A brief, entertaining summary
of some of the most important research and theoretical issues in personality psychology. As with Hall's other
works, this is worth the read.
Holzman, P. S. (1994). Retrospective Feature Review: Hilgard on Psychoanalysis as Science. Psychological
Science, 5, (4), 190-191. An interesting look at Hilgard's perspective on Psychoanalysis, in which he
criticizes Freud for failing to appropriately "define the field of inquiry."
Jung, C. (1990). The Basic Writings of C. G. Jung. Princeton, Princeton University Press. Translated by Richard
Carrington. Presents Jung's most important writings on the nature of human personality.
Rogers, C. (1961). On Becoming a Person: A Therapist's View of Psychotherapy. An older work, but certainly worth
the time. It provides the foundation of Rogers' client-centered therapy.
CASE STUDY
In 1923, personal tragedy transformed the life of an eighteen-year-old Texan named Howard. This overprotected
college freshman had never made a major decision for himself. When a heart attack killed his father, only two years
after the death of his mother, Howard suddenly inherited three-fourths of the interest in the family's lucrative tool
company. His uncle and grandparents, who owned the rest of the business, urged Howard to return to schoo l. Despite
his reputation as a shy and obedient boy, Howard refused. Within four months, he bought out his relatives' share in
the company. By the time Howard was nineteen, a judge had granted him adult status, giving him full legal control
of the million-dollar company (Barlett & Steele, 1979). However, he had no interest in running the family business.
Instead, he wanted to become the world's top aviator and most famous motion picture producer. "Then," he told his
accountant, "I want you to make me the richest man in the world" (Dietrich & Thomas, 1972, p. 73).
By the time he was thirty eight, Howard Hughes was an American legend. He founded the Hughes Aircraft
Company, manufacturer of the first spacecraft to land on the moon. He transformed Trans World Airlines into a
$500 million empire. He designed and built airplanes for racing, military, and commercial uses. As a pilot, he broke
many aviation records, capping his triumphs with a 1938 round-the-world flight. Ticker-tape parades in New York,
Chicago, Los Angeles, and Houston honored his achievement (Drosnin, 1985). However, long before that, when he
was only twenty years old, he had already reaped national honors producing several films, among them an Academy
Award winner. As head of the RKO film studio, Hughes used his power to fuel the 1950s anticommunist purge in
Hollywood. Eventually, Hughes realized his ambition; he became the world's richest man.
Despite his incredible public success, Howard Hughes was a deeply disturbed individual. As his empire expanded,
he became increasingly disorganized. He began to focus so excessively on trivial details that he accomplished less
and less. He became a recluse, sometimes vanishing for months at a time.
Hughes's mishaps as a pilot and driver caused three deaths. O n several occasions Hughes suffered serious head,
face, and, perhaps, brain injuries; one near-fatal plane crash resulted in what became a lifetime addiction to codeine
(Fowler, 1986). His risk taking extended to the world of finance as well, where he lost over $100 million of
taxpayers', stockholders', and his own money (Dietrich & Thomas, 1972).
As he grew older, Hughes became obsessed with germs. On hearing a rumor that an actress he once dated had a
venereal disease, he burned all his clothes, towels, and rugs. Eventually, the only people allowed to see him were
members of his "Mormon guard," an elite cadre of men who never questioned his often bizarre orders. Those orders
included instructions to "wash four distinct and separate times, using lots of lat her each time from individual bars of
soap" (Drosnin, 1985, p. 167). Anything their employer might touch they wrapped in fifty -tissue swaths of Kleenex;
each box opened with a clean, unused knife.
Paradoxically, Hughes lived in squalor. He rarely wore clothes or washed, never brushed his teeth, and used an
unsterilized needle to inject himself with large doses of codeine. He stayed in bed for days at a time. The richest
man in the world slowly starved his 6-foot, 4-inch frame to an emaciated 120 pounds.
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Looking to Hughes' s childhood for clues to the paradox of his personality reveals many possible links between his
early experiences and their later transformation. Similar to his father, Hughes loved mechanical gadgets. At age
three, he started taking pictures with a box camera. He tinkered in his father's workshop, creating objects out of
bits of wire and metal. He was allowed to play in the workshop—as long as he kept it spotless.
Hughes's parents fussed excessively about his health. His quiet, dignified mo ther devoted herself full-time to him,
taking him to the doctor at the slightest provocation. At fourteen, his parents sent him to a boarding school in
Massachusetts. A developing hearing loss isolated him from friendships. The highlight of his stay in the East was a
ride with his father in a seaplane that "fired his fascination with airplanes and marked the beginning of a lifelong
love affair with aviation, his most enduring passion."
Later, when he went to a California school, Hughes spent much of his time alone, riding his horse in the hills and
visiting his Hollywood screenwriter uncle. At his uncle's Sunday brunches, Hughes met many stars and movie
moguls, as did his father, who had an eye for beautiful women. Hughes began to perceive people as objects to be
avoided or collected. He would bring teenaged aspiring starlets to Hollywood, put them up in apartments, and, as
they waited for stardom, forget all about them (Fowler, 1986).
A few years before Hughes's death, his former barber reflected on the ecce ntric billionaire's personality, "I know he
has his problems: don't we all? He just operates a little different from the rest of us. Who's to say who's wrong?"
(Keats, 1966).
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