From Harmon and Holman’s A Handbook to Literature
Symbol: “Something that is itself and also stands for something else . . . . It is an image that evokes an
objective, concrete reality and prompts that reality to suggest another level of meaning.” (497-8).
[Image-- Object
Daisy’s love for Gatsby-The green light at the end of Daisy’s pier
(abstract idea is represented by a concrete object)]
[There are types of symbols. A universal symbol is one that reaches beyond one person’s experience,
carrying meaning for a wide “more universal” audience. Red as a symbol of danger and aggression represents
one such type of symbol. Cultural symbols are those referents that relate to a particular culture and hold little
to no similar meaning in other cultures. Snakes are a positive symbol in ancient Mesopotamia representing
rebirth but were reviled by their enemies the Hebrews who saw it as a symbol of evil. Authorial symbols are
those that possess personal meaning to a particular author but holds little to no similar meaning to others––but
others can relate to that experience the symbol evokes in some way or recognize it easily through the body of
the author’s works. For Poet Hilda Doolittle (HD) the Italian city of Venice symbolizes a combination of erotic
and motherly affection women can feel for others.Metaphor: “An analogy identifying one object with another and ascribing to the first object one or more of the
qualities of the second” (308).
[Object- Object
Dante’s journey to the Inferno  Dante’s spiritual journey
Literal Journey  metaphorical (spiritual) Journey]
Allegory: “A form of extended metaphor” told as a story. “It represents one thing in he guise of another” (12).
Dante’s Inferno is a metaphorical story about his journey, and so since it is an entire, lengthy narrative about
this experience that maintains the metaphorical quality throughout, his story is an allegory.]
Fable: “A brief tale told to point [to] a moral. The characters are frequently animals, but people and inanimate
objects are sometimes central” (203).
[Aesop’s fables, like “The Ant and the Grasshopper,” exemplify this type of story.]
Parable: “An illustrative story teaching a lesson” (363).
[Parables can be allegories but they generally explain in the end exactly what lesson the reader/listener should
be learning. Generally, these lessons are moral ones.]
Myth: “An anonymous story that presents supernatural episodes as a means of interpreting natural events”
(325).
[This definition is most unsatisfying. So, let’s turn to the “father” of the story of mythology, Joseph Campbell. In
The Power of Myth Campbell says: "Myth is a manifestation in symbolic images, in metaphorical images, of
the energies of the organs of the body in conflict with each other. . . . A dream is a personal experience of that
deep, dark ground that is the support of our conscious lives, and a myth is the society's dream. The myth is
the public dream and the dream is the private myth" (39-40).
My comment: Remember myth comes from the Greek word, mythos meaning "word" or "story." Myth
encompasses all stories dealing with the mystical, cosmological, sociological, and pedagogical aspect of
existence, our existence as well as that of the universe, including religious ones. Rollo May tells us that
without myths, society becomes dysfunctional and sick. Thus, not only do we have myths but we need them in
order to be healthy, psychologically, emotionally, spiritually, etc.
Allusion: A reference to historical event, literary work, or some other recognizable person, event or object
(14). Lorrie Moore’s speaker in “How To Become a Writer” alludes to the novel Moby Dick when she mentions
her idea for a story about the mopey man name Dick.