Daily life in Ancient Egypt
Contents
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Geography
Ancient Civilisation
Family Life
Marriage
Food and cooking
Cosmetics
Hair and Jewellery
Clothing
Housing and Furniture
Entertainment
Government
Architecture
The Pyramids
Art
Literature
Religion
Death and Funerals
Embalming
Burial Tombs
Geography
Location:
Size:
Capital:
Official language
Official language
Major river:
Deserts:
Landscape:
Climate:
Northeast corner of the continent of Africa.
997,740 sq. km approx.
Memphis, then Tel el Amarna, then Luxor, then
Alexandria, then much later Cairo
Arabic (today):
Combination of Semitic and Hamatic (ancient):
The River Nile separates East and West Egypt
Eastern and Western. Form barriers of protection,
shielding people against invasion.
Highest areas in the south. Land slopes gently
towards the Mediterranean Sea. Much of the delta
land in the North is at sea level. Some mountains on
the Sinai Peninsula over 2600 metres in height. Some
hills near Alexandria, and Moqatm mountain in Cairo.
Very dry, arid and hot. Almost no rainfall on a regular
basis, though some areas have lakes, oases & wells
to provide water. People depended on the annual
summer floods (June - October) for irrigation
purposes. Without the Nile there would be no Egypt.
Ancient Civilisation
Ancient Egypt was a narrow strip of land running along the banks of the River
Nile. Each year the river flooded its banks, leaving a fertile fringe of soil on
either side, which was called “the Black Land.” The desert all around the Nile
valley was called “the Red Land”. It was here that the Ancient Egyptians built
their homes, and developed their great civilisations.
Family Life
The people of Ancient Egypt valued family life highly. They treasured children
and regarded them as a great blessing. In the poorer families, the mother
raised the children. The wealthy and nobility, had slaves and servants to help
take care of the children by looking after their daily needs. If a couple had no
children they would pray to the Gods and Goddesses for help. They would
also place letters at the tombs of dead relatives asking them to use their
influence with the Gods. Magic was also used as an attempt to have children.
In the event that a couple still could not conceive, adoption was always an
option.
Although women were expected to obey their fathers and husbands, they
were equal to men in many ways. They had the legal right to participate in
business deals, own land and were expected to represent themselves in court
cases. Women even faced the same penalties as men. Sometimes the wives
and mothers of pharaohs were the ‘real’ ruling power in government, though
they ruled unbeknown to the ordinary people. Queen Hatshepsut was the
only woman who ruled outright by declaring herself pharaoh. An Egyptian
wife and mother was highly respected in this ancient society.
Young boys learned a trade or craft from their fathers or an artisan. Young
girls worked and received their training at home with their mothers. Those
who could afford it sent their sons, from about the age of seven, to school to
study religion, reading, writing and arithmetic. Even though there is no
evidence of schools for girls, some were taught to read and write at home,
and some even became doctors.
Children were expected to look after their elderly parents. Upon their parent’s
death, the sons inherited the land, while daughters inherited household goods
such as furniture and jewellery. If there were no sons in the family, there was
nothing to prevent daughters from inheriting the land. There is evidence of
some women inheriting entire homes.
Although women were expected to raise the children and take care of
household duties, there were some jobs available to them. Women ran farms
and businesses in the absence of their husbands or sons. Women were
employed in courts and temples as acrobats, dancers, singers and musicians.
Wealthy families hired maids and nannies to help with household chores and
the raising of children. Noblewomen could become priestesses. Women also
worked as professional mourners and perfume makers.
Marriage
Peasant girls usually married around the age of 12, the boys being a few
years older than the girls. Girls of more affluent families usually married when
they were a few years older. The marriages were arranged by the parents of
the children, although some young people chose their own partner. Ordinary
men normally had just one wife, but the kings always had several. Before the
marriage ceremony, the couple signed an agreement. This pre-nuptial
agreement stated that the wife was to receive an allowance from the
husband. It also stated that any material goods that the wife brought into the
marriage were hers to keep if the marriage ended for any reason. Both could
own land separately from each other but the wife usually let her husband
administer her land along with his.
Divorce was an option, although it was not common. If a husband treated his
wife badly, she would go to her family for help. The wife’s family would try to
persuade her partner to change his behaviour but if it did not improve the
divorce took place. The divorce was a straightforward procedure consisting of
making a simple statement to annul the marriage, in front of witnesses. The
wife was given custody of the children and was then free to remarry.
Food and cooking
Cooking was done in clay ovens as well as over open fires. Wood was used
for fuel, even though it was a scarce commodity in Egypt. Food could be
baked, boiled, stewed, fried, grilled or roasted. What is known about kitchen
utensils and equipment is from items that have been found in tombs. Storage
jars, bowls, pots, pans, ladles, sieves and whisks were all used in the
preparation of food. Most of the ordinary people used dishes that were made
of clay, while the wealthy used dishes that were made of bronze, silver and
gold.
Beer was the most popular beverage, and bread was the staple food in the
Egyptian diet. The beer was made with barley. The barley was left to dry, and
then baked into loaves of bread. The baked barley loaves were then broken
into pieces and mixed with the dried grain in a large jug of water and left to
ferment. To make the bread, women ground wheat into flour. The flour was
then pounded by men to make a very fine grain. Sesame seeds, honey, fruit,
butter and herbs were often added to the dough to help to flavour the bread.
Wine was a drink produced by the Egyptians, although it was only usually
found at the tables of the wealthy.
Cosmetics
Cleansing rituals were very important to the Egyptians. Most people washed
daily in the river or using a water basin at home. The wealthy had a separate
room in their home to bath. Servants would pour jugs of water over
their master (the equivalent of a modern day shower). The runoff water
drained away through a pipe that led to the garden. Instead of washing with
soap, a cleansing cream was used. This cream was made from oil, lime, and
perfume.
People rubbed themselves daily with perfumed oil. Perfume was made from
flowers and scented wood mixed with oil or fat, and was left in a pot until the
oil had absorbed all the scent. The perfumed oil was used to prevent the skin
from drying out in the harsh climate. At parties, servants put cones of
perfumed grease on the heads of the guests. As the grease melted, it ran
down their face with a pleasing cooling effect.
Men, women and children of all ages and classes wore makeup. Mirrors of
highly polished silver or copper were used to aid the application of makeup.
Eye paint was made from green malachite, and galena - a grey lead ore.
They were ground into a fine powder and mixed with oil to make eye color
called Kohl. The Kohl was kept in jars and applied to the eyes with a small
stick. The upper and lower eyelids were painted with the black kohl so that it
extended in a line out to the sides of the face. It was believed the makeup
had magical and even healing powers. Some even believed that wearing it
would restore poor eyesight. It was also used to fight eye infections and
reduce the glare of the sun.
Other cosmetics used included colors for the lips, cheeks and nails. A type of
clay called red ochre was ground up and mixed with water, and then applied
to the lips and cheeks. Henna was used to dye the fingernails yellow and
orange. Makeup was stored in special jars and the jars were stored in special
makeup boxes. Women would carry 'their makeup boxes with them to parties
and keep them under their chairs.
Hair and Jewelry
Hairstyles were very similar to that of todays. The ordinary people wore their
hair short. Young girls usually had their hair in pigtails. Boys had shaved
heads, except for one braided lock worn to one side.
Wigs were worn by both men and women. The wigs, made of sheep's wool or
human hair, were for decoration and for protection from the heat. Wigs were
usually worn at parties and official functions. Hairpieces were also added
to real hair to enhance it. When not in use, wigs were stored in special boxes
on a stand inside the home.
Everyone in Egypt wore some type of jewelry. Rings and amulets were
especially popular to ward off any evil spirits, and to protect from injury. Both
men and women wore pierced earrings, armlets, bracelets, and anklets. The
rich also wore jeweled or beaded collars, called a wesekh, necklaces and
pendants.
For the rich, jewelry was made of gold, silver or electrum (gold mixed with
silver) and inlaid with semi-precious stones such as turquoise, lapis lazuli (a
deep blue stone), and carnelian (a copper or reddish orange stone). The
poorer people wore jewelry that was made of copper or faience (made by
heating powdered quartz).
Clothing
Egyptian clothing styles did not change much throughout ancient times.
Clothes were usually made of linens, ranging from course to fine texture.
During the Old and Middle kingdoms, men usually wore a short skirt called
a kilt. Women wore a straight fitting dress held up by straps. The wealthy men
wore pleated kilts, and the older men wore a longer kilt. When doing hard
work, men wore a loincloth, and women wore a short skirt. Children usually
ran around nude during the summer months, while in the winter, wraps and
cloaks were worn. Noblewomen sometimes wore beaded dresses.
During the New Kingdom, a nobleman would sometimes wear a long robe
over his kilt, while the women wore long pleated dresses with a shawl.
Some kings and queens wore decorative ceremonial clothing with feathers
and sequins.
Most people went barefoot, but wore sandals on special occasions. The king
wore very elaborately decorated sandals, and sometimes decorative gloves
on his hands. Clothing styles were chosen for comfort in the hot, dry climate
of Egypt.
Housing and Furniture
Egyptian homes were made from bricks of sun-dried mud, called adobe,
because wood was scarce. A nobleman's home was divided into three areas:
a reception area, a hall, and the private quarters. The windows and doors on
the house were covered with mats to keep out the flies, dust, and heat. The
inside walls were decorated with wall hangings made of leather, and the
floors were covered with tile. Sometimes there was a room on the roof with
three walls where the family slept on hot summer nights.
The poorer people lived in town houses usually two to three stories high. The
first story of the town home was usually reserved for business, while the
second and third floors provided the family living space. Many people slept on
the roof during the summer to keep cool.
Most people had some furniture, which usually included a stool, small boxes
for jewelry and cosmetics, chests for clothing, pottery jars, and oil lamps.
Each home was equipped with at least one flycatcher. Sewage had to be
disposed of by each household in pits, into the river, or out into the streets.
Entertainment
Egyptians spent their spare time doing a wide variety of things, and many of
these activities are shown on the tomb walls. Dramatizations were held in the
temples, but the most important source of entertainment & relaxation was the
Nile river. Activities on the river included fishing, riverboat outings, swimming,
hunting crocodiles and hippopotami. Boat games, where two teams of men in
boats with long poles would try to push each other into the water, were also
popular. Hunting in the desert was another great pastime, especially for the
noblemen. Men first hunted on foot, however, by the time of the New
Kingdom, men used horses and chariots. Some of the animals the Ancient
Egyptians hunted include fox, hare, and hyena.
Wealthy Egyptians often entertained by holding extravagant parties with
plenty of food to eat and beer and wine to drink. Singers, dancers, acrobats,
and musicians were hired to entertain. The Egyptians loved music, and
played instruments such as the lute, harp, and lyre. Other favorite pastimes
included board games like Hounds & Jackals, and Senet. Children kept
themselves entertained with toys like carved ivory animals, wooden horses on
wheels, and balls.
Festivals held in Ancient Egypt were usually holidays in honor of the gods.
The important gods had festivals in their honor that were held by the priests.
A statue of the god was carried through the streets.
More friendly gods had celebrations held by the people, not just the priests.
Bes was one of the most popular Gods and one of the gods the people held a
festival for. On the day of Bes, no work was done on the pyramid, and people
would parade down the street dressed in masks of Bes, while dancers and
tambourine players followed. The townspeople joined in the singing from their
rooftops, and the children would run along beside the dancers singing and
clapping their hands. The whole town enjoyed the festival and feast.
Government
In pre-dynastic times, people found that living in the Nile River Valley
provided them with a safe environment. The Nile River Valley was a rich area
because of the annual flooding of the river.
Over time the various groups organized themselves into two separate
governments called the Upper Kingdom and the Lower Kingdom. About
3,100 BC., Menes, the ruler of Upper Egypt, conquered the Lower Egyptian
Kingdom. Menes united Egypt and became the first ruler of both Upper and
Lower Egypt. Where the two kingdoms met, Menes built the capital of
Memphis.
To the people of Egypt, the ruler, later called pharaoh, was more than a king.
He was considered by many to be a god. As a god, the pharaoh was believed
to posses all the secrets of heaven and earth, he was the living embodiment
of the Gods. This is why the Egyptians considered his power absolute.
The pharaoh was responsible for all aspects of Egyptian life - keeping the
irrigation works in order, directing the army, keeping peace, and issuing laws.
He also controlled trade and the economy. The base of the pharaoh's power
was his control of the land. The pharaoh owned Egypt’s mines, quarries and
the trading fleets that sailed to foreign lands. Foreign merchants had to deal
with royal officials, not with the merchants of Egypt.
Many officials were appointed to supervise the details of the government. The
most important was the vizier, also known as the Chief Overseer (a bit like a
Prime Minister.) His job was to carry out the orders of the pharaoh, he acted
as a diplomat in the royal court, and was in charge of tax collection and
public works.
Under the vizier were the governors who controlled the local areas into which
Egypt was divided. Beneath the governors were the scribes and overseers.
The scribes were the keepers of the records. The overseers supervised the
farming of the land, and the peasants. Government and religion were
inseparable in Egypt.
Architecture
Many of the great architectural, achievements of the past are built of stone.
Stone quarries supplied the large blocks of granite, limestone and sandstone
that were used for building palaces, temples and tombs. Architects planned
carefully as building was done without mortar. The stones had to fit together
precisely. At the temple of Karnak, a ramp of adobe brick can be seen leading
to the top of the temple wall. Such ramps were used to allow workmen to
carry stones to the top of structures and allow artists to decorate the tops of
walls and pillars. Pillars were built in the same way. As height was added, the
ground was raised. When the top of the pillar was completed, the artists
would decorate from the top down, removing ramp sand as they went along.
As soon as a pharaoh was named, construction on his tomb would begin.
Tomb building continued throughout his life and stopped only on the day on
which he died. As a result, some tombs are very large and finely decorated,
while other tombs, like that of King Tutankhamun, are small because he ruled
as a pharaoh for such a short time.
The architecture was based upon perpendicular structures and inclined
planes since there was no structural assistance except the strength and
balance of the structure itself. For this reason, the square and the plumb-line
were very important tools.
The Pyramids
One of the most notable and lasting achievements of the Ancient Egyptians
are their pyramids. The size, design, and structure of the pyramids reveal the
skill of these ancient builders. The pyramids were great monuments and
tombs for the kings. The Egyptians believed that a king's soul continued to
guide affairs of the kingdom even after his death. To ensure that they would
continue to enjoy the blessings of the gods, they preserved the pharaoh's
body through the mummification process. They built the pyramids to protect
the preserved body. The pyramid was a symbol of hope, because it would
ensure the pharaoh's union with the gods.
The largest pyramid in existence is the Great Pyramid built by King Cheops
(Khufu) at Giza. The Great Pyramid measures 481 feet high, by 775 feet long
at each of its four bases. Other notable pyramids include the Step Pyramid
built for King Zoser, and the pyramid built for King Huni, that was a transition
between the step pyramid and the smooth sided pyramid we know today.
Art
The art of the Egyptians reflects every aspect of their lives. Depicted in tomb
and temple drawings are scenes of everyday living, models of people and
animals, glass figures and containers, and jewelry made from gold and
semi-precious stones.
The wall and pillar drawings are perhaps the best known. In these drawings, it
can be seen that people are going about the everyday business of baking,
fishing, boating, marketing, and meeting together in family groups.
Such drawings were also thought to help the dead to live on forever by giving
them all of the instructions they would need as they met the gods on their way
to eternal life. The good deeds were recorded and the art that surrounded
their mummified body was to help their spiritual self in solving the problems
related to life after death. Pictures of food, clothing, servants, and slaves
could be used by the deceased just as the real things were used by the
person when living.
A variety of perspectives are often combined in Egyptian art. However, the
side view is the most often seen. The artists used bright colors of blue and
red, orange and white to develop pictures that tell of the life of the deceased
individual. The artist would first sketch a design on a piece of pottery, and if
the design was satisfactory, it would be sketched on the wall with charcoal.
Colors could then be used to fill in the completed picture. Paints were made
from naturally occurring minerals and artificially prepared mineral substances.
Paintbrushes were sticks of fibrous wood with frayed ends. Walls were
covered with mud plaster, then with lime plaster. By the time of Ramses II,
artists were able to shade colors to achieve a layered effect. Wall paintings
were then protected by a thin layer of varnish (the composition of which is still
not known).
Sculptors were important artists in Egypt. Statues were made of kings,
queens, scribes, animals, and gods and goddesses. Frequently, human and
godlike attributes and symbols were combined. The work of the artist was
seen in other media as well. Alabaster, a white translucent stone, was often
used for making vessels and containers. Pottery was made of ceramics and
clay. Pottery glazed with minerals was used to make beads, amulets,
pendants, and other jewelry. A vivid blue glaze was very popular during the
reign of Ramses II. Craftsmen made glass for inlayed designs and for some
containers. Workers were able to make articles out of lead, gold, silver, and
copper. Such metals were used to make pins, tweezers, razors, axes, knives,
spears, sculptures and jewelry. The stability of the government during the
reign of Ramses II allowed the skills of the artist and architect to flourish.
Literature
Religion was often the subject of Egyptian literature. Prayers and hymns were
written in praise of the gods. The most important book was ‘The Book of the
Dead.’ This book contained over 200 prayers and magic formulas
that taught the Egyptians how to reach a happy afterlife. The Egyptians also
wrote adventure stories, fairy tales, myths, love stories, poems and proverbs.
Religion in Ancient Egypt
Religion guided every aspect of Egyptian life. Egyptian religion was based on
polytheism, or the worship of many deities, except for during the reign of
Akenaton. The Egyptians had as many as 2000 gods and goddesses. Some,
such as Amun, were worshipped throughout the whole country, while others
had only a local following. Often gods and goddesses were represented as
part human and part animal. For example, Horus the sky god, had the head
of a hawk, and body of a human. They considered animals such as the bull,
the cat and the crocodile to sacred. Their two chief gods were Amon-Ra and
Osiris. Amon-Ra was believed to be the sun god and the lord of the universe.
Osiris was the god of the underworld. Stories about him revolved around the
idea of immortality. Osiris was the god that made a peaceful afterlife possible.
The Egyptian ‘Book of the Dead’ contains the major ideas and beliefs in the
ancient Egyptian religion. Because their religion stressed an afterlife,
Egyptians devoted much time and wealth to preparing for survival in the next
world.
The Egyptians had many tales about how the world began. According to one
legend, it started with an ocean in darkness. Then a mound of dry land rose
up and the sun god Re appeared. He created light and all things. Another
version has the sun God emerging from a sacred blue lotus flower that grew
out of the mud, while a third version has him appearing as a scarab beetle on
the eastern horizon.
Temples were considered dwelling places for the gods. They were
everywhere. Each city had a temple built for the god of that city. The purpose
of the temple was to be a cosmic centre by which men had communication
with the gods. As the priests became more powerful, tombs became a part of
the great temples.
The priests’ duty was to care for the gods and attend to their needs. The
priests had many duties such as funeral rites, teaching school, supervising
the artists and works, and advising people on problems.
Death and Funerals
The Egyptians saw death as a transitional stage in the progress to a better
life in the next world. They believed they could only reach their full potential
after death. Each person was thought to have three souls, the ‘ka,’ the
‘ba,’ and the ‘akh.’ For these to function properly, it was considered essential
for the body to survive intact. The entire civilization of Ancient Egypt was
based on religion, and their beliefs were important to them. Their
belief in rebirth after death became the driving force behind their funeral
practices.
Embalming
When a person died, the priests recited prayers and a final attempt was made
to revive the deceased. The body was then washed and purified in a special
shelter called an ibu. The body was then taken to the wabet, which was
the embalmers workshop. A cut was made in the left side, and all the organs
were removed, dried out and stored in containers known as canopic jars. The
body was then packed with a salt called natron for a period of forty days to
dry it out. After the forty days had passed, the insides were filled with linen or
sawdust. The body was then wrapped in linen bandages. Jewelry, shabtis
and amulets were placed between the layers. The Chief Embalmer, who wore
a jackal mask to represent the god Anubis, placed a portrait mask over the
head of the deceased. The wrapped body, or mummy, was then placed into a
cartonnage casing and / or a coffin.
Burial Tombs
After a period of about 70 days, in which the mummification process took
place, the mummy was placed in a decorated coffin. Furniture, carved
statues, games, food, and other items useful to the next life were prepared to
be buried with the mummy. The last ritual performed by the priest on the
mummy was called the ‘Opening of the Mouth.’ This ceremony was believed
to magically give the deceased the ability to speak and eat again, and to have
full use of their body again in the Afterlife. After placing the mummy in its final
resting place, the tomb was sealed.