(FCE- Grammar)
Linking Words
Linking words show the logical relationship between sentences or parts of a sentence.
1. Positive Addition
And is used to connect words or phrases.
And may be used to connect two
independent clauses.
and (и, а)
2.
both... and (как... так и)
either.....or (или....или)
both/either/neither +of
(тот или другой, один из
двух, любой из двух)
Affirmative Agreement
 either (и тот и
другой)
 too (тоже, также- в
конце предложения)
Negative Agreement
 neither (ни тот ни
другой)
 either (тоже, также
в
конце
предложения)
 both
-не
употребляется
в
отрицательной
форме
We use both , neither, either when we
are talking about two things.
Two subjects connected by both.....and
take a plural verb. Both + noun + and +
noun.
Do not use both /both...and... in negative
sentences. Use neither / neither...nor...
Either/neither of are singular if they are
not used with or or nor.
either + noun + or + plural noun +
plural verb
either + noun + or + singular noun +
singular verb
both
either
neither
+ of

the/these/ my/your...+noun
When we use both/ either
/neither with of you always need «the,
these, those, my, our, his...».You cannot
say ‘both of restaurants’; you have to say
‘both of the restaurants / both of these
restaurants.
3.
too (тоже, также)
also(также)
as well (так же)
as well as (так же как,
не
только.....но
и
также.......)
Also, as well, too are used with a similar
meaning.
either (= «также» с
отрицательным
глаголом
As well and too come at the end of the
clause when you are adding something
to a list of things that you gave in the
previous sentence. But also comes in the
middle of a clause: before the verb , after
an auxiliary, modal or to be.
Also /Too / As well are not used with
two negative statements ( use either)
subject + negative
(instead of too / also)
verb
+
either
 Steve and his friends are coming to
dinner.
 He is waving his arms and shouting
at us.
 It was raining hard, and there was a
strong wind.
 Both my mother and my sister are
here.
 Both restaurants are very good.
 Neither restaurant is expensive.
 We can go to either restaurant.
 The research project will take both
time and money.
 Either John or his friends are going
to the beach today.
 Either John or Bill is going to the
beach today.
 Both of these restaurants are very
good.
 Neither of the restaurants we went
to was (were-Am.E.) expensive.
 Neither of them came to the
meeting.
 We can go to either of those
restaurants.
 Neither of the books is exactly
what I want.
 If either of you takes a vocation
now , we will not be able to finish
the work.
 We accepted neither offer.
 There were chairs on either side of
the table.
 Bill likes golf and Tom likes golf
too.
 Bill would enjoy a game and Tom
would too.
 I haven’t seen him either.
 He didn’t like the book; I didn’t
either.
 She doesn’t smoke. She doesn’t
drink either.
 Frank speaks French. He also
speaks German.
 I can also play the piano.
 We have also decided to get a new
car.
 « I’m going to get bread, cheese,
tea, and sugar». «Can you get some
4.
besides(кроме того)
anyway ( во всяком
случае)
moreover(более того)
what is more ( что более)
in addition (to) ( в
дополнении к, к тому
же)
furthermore( кроме
того, к тому же)
5. Negative Addition
neither... nor...(ни.....ни)
nor (также не)
not only...but also.... ( не
только....но также и...)
neither (также не, ни
тот ни другой)
6. Contrast
while ( в то время как)
whereas (тогда как)
7.
but (но)
yet ( тем не менее, все
же, однако)
still (тем не менее, все
же)
but...anyway
but... still
yet... still
8.
Although (хотя)
even though (даже хотя)
though
because
These expressions are used to add
information to what has already been
said.
Anyway / Besides are used at the
beginning of a sentence when you have
given one reason for doing smth and you
want to add another.
Besides = in addition to
Moreover / furthermore / in addition =
also. They are used at the beginning of a
sentence to add a more important fact
than the one that you gave in the
previous sentence.
In addition to / besides are used as
prepositions. They are followed by an
object, not a clause.
Nether...nor / not only...but also... +
singular noun + singular verb
Nether...nor / not only...but also... +
plural noun + plural verb
Neither takes an affirmative verb.
While and whereas are used to show
clear contrast between two subjects
within one sentence. They are followed
by a clause.
But is used to join two words or phrases
when the second one has the opposite
meaning.
They show contrast (unexpected result)
milk as well?»
 She’s got a car as well as a
motorbike.
 I hate asking for a pay rise.
Anyway, there’s no point.
 I don’t really need a new car.
Besides, I can’t afford one.
 The city provides many cultural
opportunities. It has an excellent art
museum. Moreover /
Furthermore/ In addition , it has a
fine symphony orchestra.
 The city provides many cultural
opportunities. In addition to /
Besides an excellent art museum, it
has a fine symphony orchestra.
 Besides doing the cooking I look
after the garden.
 Neither John nor his friends are
going to the beach today.
 Neither John nor Bill is going to
the beach today.
 Not only my mother but also my
sister is here.
 Not only my sister but also my
parents are here.




Mary is rich, while John is poor.
Mary is rich, whereas John is poor.
Whereas Mary is rich, John is poor
John loves playing outdoors all day,
while / whereas Harry likes playing
computer games.
 It was cold, but I went swimming
anyway.
 It was cold , but I still went
swimming .
 It was cold, yet I still went
swimming.
 Mary is rich, but John is poor.
because is used to express expected
results; even though is used to express
unexpected results.
Although is followed by a clause and a
comma. After Although we use a subject
+ verb.
Even though is stronger than although.
Although can’t be at the end of a
sentence; though- can.
We use though to mean ‘however’ at the
end of a sentence. Think of although as
«before the fact» and however as «after
the fact».
 Even though / Although / Though
it was cold, I went swimming.
 Because I wasn’t tired, I didn’t go
to bed.
 We went out although it was
raining.
 Even though I wasn’t tired, I went
to bed.
 Although he studied very hard, he
didn’t pass the exam.
 He didn’t finish the job, even
though he worked all night.
 The room is very small. It’s quite
comfortable though.
9.
in spite of (несмотря на)
despite (несмотря на)
despite the fact that....
in spite of the fact that....
10.
on the other hand (с
другой стороны)
in spite of / despite + Ving
in spite of / despite + noun
in spite of / despite + pronoun
in spite of = despite
Use this at the beginning of a sentence
when you have just mentioned one side
of an argument And you are going to
mention the opposite side.
11.
however
(однако,
как бы ни)
nevertheless (тем не
менее)
nonetheless ( тем не
менее)
However and nevertheless link
contrasting ideas in two different
sentences.
12. Giving Examples
for example (например)
for instance (например)
for example = for instance
These expressions introduce particular
examples to illustrate what has been said.
e.g. = for example
e.g. = exempli gratia (Latin)
e.g. -AmE
eg - BrE
such as (такой как)
like (подобно, как)
such as = for example
especially(особенно)
in particular(в
особенности)
13. Cause/ Reason
As / since = because, and they can begin
a sentence; they are followed by a clause.
as (так как)
since (поскольку, так
как)
14.
because (of) (потому
что, так как, из-за)
due to (из-за, благодаря)
now that ( теперь когда,
Because introduces an adverb clause; it
is followed by a subject and verb.
Because of / due to are phrasal
prepositions ; they are followed by a
noun object.
now that = because now
 I went swimming despite / in spite
of the cold weather.
 I went swimming despite the fact
that / in spite of the fact that the
weather was cold.
 Despite / In spite of her excellent
qualifications , Carol didn’t get the
job.
 Despite / In spite of having
excellent qualifications ,
Carol
didn’t get the job.
 Mary is rich. John, on the other
hand, is poor.
 Nuclear power is relatively cheap.
On the other hand, you could
argue that it’s not safe.
 It was cold. Nevertheless , I went
swimming.
 I like him very much. However /
Nevertheless, we are very different.
 There are many interesting places
to visit in the city. For example, the
botanical garden has numerous
displays of plants from all over the
world.
 There are many interesting places
to visit in the city. The art museum,
for instance, has an excellent
collection of modern paintings.
 I prefer to wear casual clothes, such
as jeans and a sweatshirt.
 Some countries, such as Brazil and
Canada, are big.
 Since Monday is a holiday, we
don’t have to go to work.
 Since you are a good cook and I’m
not, you should cook the dinner.
 As it was a public holiday, all the
shops were shut.
 As they live near us, we see them
quite often.
 Because the weather was cold, we
stayed home.
 Because of the cold weather, we
stayed home.
 Due to the cold weather, we stayed
home.
 Due to the fact that the weather was
cold, we stayed home.
 We stayed home because of / due
to the cold weather.
 Now that the semester is over
поскольку)
Now that is used for present causes of
present or future situations.


15.
for this reason (по этой
причине)
as a result (of) (в
результате)
16.
Condition
if /whether(если)
whether or not
even if = even though
17.
in case (в случае)
in case of (в случае если
in the event that
18.
only if (если только)
unless (если только ...не,
разве только)
19.
otherwise (иначе, в
противном случае)
or (else) (иначе, в
противном случае, а то)
as a result of smth. = because of smth
Use as a result of to say what made
something happen.
Use the simple/good/obvious reason
(that) to explain why something
happened
Whether or not expresses the idea that
neither this condition nor that condition
matters; the result will be the same. Even
if gives the idea that a particular
condition does not matter. The result will
not change.
In case / in the event that express the
idea that something probably won’t
happen , but it might. It means «if by
chance this should happen».
In case is followed by a present /past
tense or should.
(do not use will after in case)
In case of... = if there is...
unless = if...not = except if
unless + affirmative verb =
if + negative
We often use unless in warnings: (We’ll be
late unless we hurry.)
Otherwise expresses the idea «if the
opposite is true, then there will be a
certain result».
Or else and Otherwise have the same
meaning.


( =because the semester is now
over) , I’m going to rest a few days
and then take a trip.
Jack lost his job. Now that he’s
unemployed, he can’t pay his bills.
Hundreds of people lost their
homes as a result of the war.
Con died as the result of a heart
attack.
We can’t take you all, for the
simple reason that there isn’t
enough room in the car.
 I’m going to go swimming
tomorrow whether or not it is cold.
(or : whether it is cold or not)
 I’ve decided to go swimming
tomorrow. Even if the weather is
cold. I’m going to go swimming.
 You must go tomorrow if you are
ready.
 You must go tomorrow even if you
aren’t ready.
 I’ll be at my uncle’s house in case
you (should) need to reach me.
 In the event that you (should) need
to reach me, I’ll be at my uncle’s
house.
 I always slept by the phone in case
he rang during the night. = I always
slept by the phone because (I knew)
he might ring during the night.
 We bought some food in case Tom
came.
 In case of fire, please leave the
building as quickly as possible. =if
there is a fire.
 I’ll go swimming tomorrow unless
it’s cold.
 Don’t tell Sue what I said unless
she asks you. (= except if she asks
you)
 I’ll go swimming tomorrow if it
isn’t cold.
 You’ll get wet unless you take your
umbrella.
 Unless you start at once you’ll be
late = If you don’t start at once
you’ll be late.
 I always eat breakfast. Otherwise , I
get hungry during class.
 You’d better hurry. Otherwise,
you’ll be late.
 Take your umbrella. Otherwise,
you’ll get wet.
 I always eat breakfast, or (else) I
20.
provided (that) /
providing (that) (при
условии если)
as /so long as (если
только, при условии
что)
on condition (that) (при
условии если)
21.
as if / as though ( как
будто, как если бы)
22.
Purpose
in order to (чтобы, для
того чтобы)
in order that( чтобы, для
того чтобы)
so that (так что, для
того чтобы)
in case (в случае если, а
то вдруг, а то как бы
не)
23. Effect / Result
such/so... that(такой
что)
Provided that can replace if when there
is a strong idea of limitation or restriction
(mainly used with permission)
Provided / Providing - only if a
particular thing happens or is done.
As / so long as is used before saying the
conditions that will make something
else happen or be true.
Like is followed by a noun object or a
clause. As if /as though are followed by
a clause. Usually the idea following as if/
as though is «untrue». In this case, verb
usage is similar to that in conditional
sentence.
In order to is used to express purpose, it
answers the question «Why?». It is
followed by a verb.
So that also expresses purpose. It has the
same meaning as in order to. So that is
often used instead of in order to when
the idea of ability is being expressed.
Can is used in the adverb clause for a
present/future meaning. So that I can buy
= in order to be able to buy. Could is
used after so that in past sentences.
In order that = so that
in case + present tense = because this
may happen/ because this will happen
in case + past tense = because this might
happen /because this would happen
such ....that = so.... that
such + adjective + noun
+ that
so + adjective/adverb + that
so...that is used with many, few, much,
and little.
get hungry during class.
 Take your umbrella, or (else) you’ll
get wet.
 You can camp here provided you
leave no mess.
 Provided you pay me back by
Friday, I’ll lend you the money.
 It’s a lot easier to get good marks
on a short -answer question,
providing you do it well.
 My parents don’t care what job I do
as long as I’m happy.
 They spoke on condition that their
names would not be used in the
article.
 It looks like rain.
 It looks as if it is going to rain.
 It looks as though it is going to
rain.
 It looks like it is going to rain
(informal)
 She talked to him as if he were a
child.
 He acted as though he had never
met her.
 He came here in order to study
English.
 I turned off the TV in order to
enable my roommate to study in
peace and quiet.
 I turned off the TV so (that) my
roommate could study in peace and
quiet.
 I’m going to cash a check so that I
can buy my textbooks.
 I cashed a check so that I could buy
my textbooks.
 I turned off the TV in order that
my roommate could study in peace
and quiet.
 I don’t let him climb trees in case
he tears his trousers.
 I carry a spare wheel in case I have
a puncture.
 I always kept candles in the house
in case there was a power cut.
 It was such nice weather that we
went to the zoo.
 The weather was so nice that we
went to the zoo.
 It was such good coffee that I had
another cup.
 It was such a foggy day that we
couldn’t see the road.
 The coffee was so hot that I can’t
drink it.
 I’m so hungry that I could eat a
horse.
 She speaks so fast that I can’t
understand her.
24.
consequently
(следовательно,
поэтому)
therefore (поэтому)
so (поэтому, таким
образом)
Therefore and consequently mean « as a
result» . They connect the ideas between
two sentences. They have several
positions and are separated from the rest
of the sentence by commas.
So ( meaning therefore, as a result )
connects two sentences. So has only
one possible position: between the two
sentences.
When = at that time
25. Time.
when (когда)
26.
While / as = during that time
We use as when two things happen at
the same time.
while (в то время как,
пока)
as ( в то время как,
когда, по мере того как)
27.
after (после того как)
before (прежде чем)
28.
as soon as (как только)
once (когда-то,
однажды, как только)
by the time ( к тому
времени)
 When I arrived, he was talking on
the phone.
 When was in Chicago, I visited the
museums.
 When I see him tomorrow, I will
ask him.
 While I was studying, the phone
rang.
 While I was walking home, it began
to rain.
 As I was walking home, it began to
rain.
 George arrived as Sue left.
A present tense, not a future tense is
used in time-clause.
After and before are commonly used in
the following expressions:
shortly after/ before;
a short time after/ before;
a little while after / before;
not long after / before;
soon after
 After she graduates, she will get a
job.
 After she (had) graduated, she got a
job.
 I will leave before he comes.
 I (had) left before he came.
as soon as / once = when one event
happens, another event happens soon
afterward.
 As soon as it stops raining, we will
leave.
 Once it stops raining, we will leave.
by the time = one event is completed
before another event ( usually Past
Perfect or Future Perfect)
 By the time he arrived, we had
already left.
 By the time he comes, we will have
already left.
 I haven’t seen him since he left this
morning.
 I’ve known her ever since I was a
child.
 We stayed there until we finished
our work.
 We stayed there till we finished our
work.
 I will never speak to him again as
long as I live.
since ( с тех пор как)
since = from that time to the present.
Ever since adds emphasis. The Present
Perfect is used in the main clause.
until/till (до тех пор
пока)
until / till = to that time and then no
longer. Till is used more in speaking than
in writing; it is generally not used in
formal English.
as long as / so long as =
during all that time , from beginning to
end
As long as / so long as
( пока, до тех пор пока)
 She made so many mistakes that
she failed the exam.
 Al didn’t study. Therefore, he
failed the test.
 Al didn’t study. Consequently, he
failed the test.
 =..... He, therefore, failed the test.
 =....He failed the test, therefore.
 Al didn’t study, so he failed the
test.
29.
whenever(когда бы ни,
всякий раз когда)
every time ( каждый раз)
the first time (в первый
раз)
the last time (в последний
раз)
the next time ( в
следующий раз)
30.
Place
where (где, куда)
wherever ( где бы ни,
куда бы ни ),
31. Exception
except (for) (за
исключением, если бы не,
если не считать)
apart from (помимо,
кроме, не считая)
32.
Relatives
who (кто, который)
whom (кому , кого)
whose( чей, которого)
which (который, какой,
что)
that (что, который)
whenever = every time that something
happens.
Whenever is used:
 as a conjunction (connecting two
clauses);
 as an adverb
every time = whenever something
happens ; when one thing happens,
something else always happens.
The first time / the last time / the next
time refer to a particular occasion.
Where can be used:
 as a relative adverb (introducing a
relative clause);
 as a conjunction (connecting two
clauses)
Wherever can be used as a conjunction
(connecting two clauses)
Except is used for introducing the only
thing , person, or fact that is not included
in your main sentence; it is like saying
without, or minus.
Apart from is used:
 except for someone or something.
 in addition to someone/something
who/whom/whose/which/
that are used to introduce relative
clauses. They are called relative
pronouns or relatives.
for people: who/that/whom/whose
for animals/things:
which/that/whose
 I will never speak to him again so
long as I live.
 Whenever I see her, I say hello.
 Every time I see her, I say hello.
 Whenever I smiled, he smiled back.
 Whenever have I been cruel to you?
 Whenever I hear that song , I think
of you.
 We can’t keep calling the doctor
every time you get a headache.
 My neck hurts every time I move.
 The first time I went to New York,
I went to an opera.
 I saw two plays the last time I went
to New York.
 The last time we met you promised
to join me on a trip to Beijing.
 The next time I go to New York,
I’m going to see a ballet.
 I know a place where you can hide.
 I’ve hidden the money where no
one will find it.
 She was followed by press
photographers wherever she went.
 We haven’t told anyone except
Leslie’s dad.
 I like all musical instruments except
the violin.
 I don’t know much about the man,
except that he’s a fool.
 Everything was perfect except for
the weather.
 I hardly know anyone in the village
apart from William and you.
 Apart from the violin, he plays the
piano and the flute. (=besides the
violin......)
 I like all musical instruments apart
from the violin. (=.........except the
violin)
 She’s the woman (who/ whom
/that) I saw on TV last night.
 That’s the dog whose owner was
arrested.
 That’s the shop whose windows
were smashed.
 This is the house (which/that) we
live in.
 His wife, who is French, speaks
three languages.
33. Listing points/Events
to begin with / to start
with (во первых, прежде
всего, начать с того
что....)
first / firstly / first of all
(прежде всего)
to continue
(продолжая...)
then (затем, тогда)
34. Summarising
in conclusion ( в
заключении)
to conclude ( в
заключении)
finally/ lastly(в конце
концов, в конечном
счете)
in summary (подводя
итог, в итоге)
to sum up (подводя
итог)
on the whole ( в общем, в
целом)
all in all (в общем,
полностью, целиком)
altogether ( в общем,
вполне)
in short (кратко,
вкратце)
to begin with - is used for introducing
the first thing in a list of things you are
going to say.
first / firstly / first of all introduce the
first item in a list or sequence. The next
item is normally introduced by then or
secondly.
To introduce a concluding statement, use
in conclusion, by way of conclusion, or
to conclude.
Finally/lastly are used at the beginning
of a sentence to introduce the last point
in a speech, reply, essay, etc.
In summary is used at the end of a talk
or piece of writing for introducing a short
statement that gives only basic
information.
Sum up = to give a summary of
something
On the whole is used for talking about
the general situation.
All in all is used for showing that you are
considering every aspect of something.
Altogether / in short are used for
introducing a summary of what you have
just said.
 «Why were you annoyed?» «Well, to begin with, I hadn’t even
invited her».
 First, open all the windows. Then
turn off the gas and, if necessary ,
call an ambulance.
 First(ly) , we need somewhere to
live. Second(ly), we need to find
work. And third(ly)........
 In conclusion, I’d like to say that
everybody should be able to work if
they want to.
 To conclude, I’d like to say that
everybody should read the book.
 Finally, I’d like to consider the
economic arguments.
 Lastly, I’d like to thank you all for
coming and wish you a safe journey
home.
 In summary, nobody knows where
the disease originated.
 I’ll sum up briefly and then we’ll
take questions.
 It was a pretty good conference on
the whole.
 All in all, I think it has been a very
successful conference.
 The weather was great and the
people were friendly- altogether a
perfect trip.
 Inflation is down, spending is up.
In short, the economy is in good
shape.