Basic Anatomy
I. Anatomy- study of form, shape, structure
1. Macroscopic - organismic – “gross”- complete – large
a. Regional – all the structures in one particular region of the body examined at
the same time
b. Systemic – the gross anatomy studied system by system
c. Surface – study of internal body structures as they relate to the overlying skin
surface
2. Microscopic – structures too small to be seen with the naked eye
a. Cytology – study of cells and cellular anatomy
b. Histology – study of tissues
3. Developmental - changes bet. conception and birth
a. Embryology – developmental changes that occur before birth
4. Medical diagnosis & scientific research
a. Pathological – structural changes in the body caused by disease, micro &
macro
b. Radiographic – study of internal structures as they are visualized by x-ray or
other scans
c. Molecular biology – study of the structure of biological molecules, chemical
structure
II. Physiology- study of function- how and why a given structure performs a function
1. Dynamic nature of the anatomy of the human body
2. Morphology- relationship between form and function
3. Principle of complementarity of structure and function
a. Function always reflects structure – what a structure can do depends on its
specific form
III. Levels of OrganizationChemical- atom, molecule, compound
Subcellular- organelles, membranes
Cellular- smallest “living” units
Tissues- collections of like cells performing like functions
1. Epithelium – covers body surfaces and lines cavities
2. Muscle – contracts, causes movement
3. Connective – supports body and protects its organs
4. Nervous – means of internal communication by way of electrical
Organ- collections of tissues
Organ systems- groups of organs that work together for the same function
Organisms- all organ systems working together
1. Integumentary System
a. Forms the external body covering
b. Protects deeper tissues from injury
c. Synthesizes vitamin D
d. Site of receptors, oil and sweat glands
2. Skeletal System
a. Protects and supports body organs
b. Framework for muscle attachment
c. Blood cell formation
d. Mineral storage
3. Muscular System
a. Locomotion, facial expression, maintains posture
b. Produces heat
4. Nervous System
a. Control and communication system of the body
b. Responds to internal and external changes – activates muscles and glands
5. Endocrine System
a. Glands secrete hormones that regulate other processes
6. Cardiovascular System (Circulatory)
a. Blood vessels transport blood, oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes
b. Heart is the main pump
7. Lymphatic System
a. Returns leaked fluid to the blood
8. Immune System
a. Defense against harmful substances
b. White blood cells
9. Respiratory System
a. Supplies blood with oxygen
b. Removes carbon dioxide
10. Digestive System
a. Breaks down food
b. Allows nutrients to enter the blood stream
c. Removes excess as feces
11. Urinary System (Renal)
a. Eliminates nitrogenous waste from the body
b. Regulates water, electrolyte, and acid/base balance
12. Reproductive System (Male & Female)
a. Produce offspring
IV. Maintaining Homeostasis
1. Organ systems support life by maintaining homeostasis- minimal change in internal
conditions.
2. The body’s ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even if there is a
change in the outside world.
3. No individual organ system can work by itself. They work cooperatively to promote the
well being of the whole body.
4. Internal cells have narrow limits of tolerance: temp – 92-100 degrees F
Salinity- .09%- + or - .01%
PH- 7.4-7.5
Functional Characteristics
1. Maintaining boundaries
a. Internal environment remains distinct from the external environment
b. From cell membrane to the skin
2. Movement
a. Activity created by the muscular system
b. Manipulating the external environment
c. Cellular nutrients determine ability
d. Requires skeletal framework
3. Responsiveness – irritability
a. Ability to sense changes in the environment
b. React and respond to the changes
c. Nervous system plays a key role
4. Digestion
a. Breaking down ingested food into simple molecules that can be absorbed
5. Metabolism
a. All chemical reactions that occur within body cells
b. Depends on the digestive and respiratory systems
c. Regulated by hormones
6. Excretion
a. Process of removing waste
7. Reproduction
a. From cellular level to organismal level
b. Producing offspring
8. Growth
a. Increase in size
b. Increase in number of cells or cell size
Survival Needs – all need to be present and in appropriate amounts to sustain life
1. Nutrients – Chemical substances used for energy and cell building
a. Carbohydrates, Proteins, Fats, Minerals, Vitamins
2. Oxygen – necessary for most chemical reactions
3. Water – most abundant chemical, provides environment, necessary for some chemical
reacations
4. Body Temperature – affects metabolic reactions
a. must be maintained around 37 C or 98 F
b. If the temp drops, reactions slow and may cease
c. If the temp rises, reactions speed up and proteins may stop functioning
d. In either direction – death is possible
5. Atmospheric Pressure – force exerted on the surface of the body by the weight of air
a. Allows air to move in and out of the lungs
1.
2.
3.
4.
Control Mechanisms
Components
a. Receptor – a type of sensor that monitors the environment and responds to
changes called stimuli
b. Control Center – receives and analyzes information from the receptor
i. Determines the course of action and appropriate response
c. Effector – method of response as dictated by the control center
Afferent Pathway – the flow of information from the receptor to the control center
Efferent Pathway – the flow of information from the control center to the effector
Feedback – the results of the response influence the initial stimulus
a. Positive – the result of the mechanism enhances or exaggerates the original
stimulus, the activity is stimulated
i. Ex: labor contractions
b. Negative – mechanisms that cause the variable to change in a direction opposite
to that of the initial change, prevents sudden and severe changes
i. Ex: home heating system
Normal
→→
↑
Inc. BP←
constrict vessels←
Loss of blood
→↓
Dec. BP
↓
Inc. HR
V. Terminology (see handout)
Anatomical Position
Directions – relative to other parts, compares two things
Planes
Regional descriptive (landmarks)
Body Cavities
1. Dorsal
a. Cranial cavity – the brain encased in the skull
b. Spinal cavity – runs within the bony vertebral column, encloses the spinal cord
2. Ventral
a. Thoracic- ribs to diaphragm
b. Abdominopelvic- abdominal and pelvic
i. Abdominal- diaphragm to hips
ii. Pelvic- space between hips
c. Membranes – the walls of the ventral cavity and the outer surface of the organs
are covered by a thin, double layered membrane – Serous
i. Parietal – lines the cavity walls
ii. Visceral – covers the organs in the cavity
iii. Serous fluid – secreted to reduce friction
iv. Pericardium – around the heart
v. Pleura – around the lungs
vi. Peritoneum – around the organs
VI. Abdominopelvic Regions
Right hypochondriac Region
Epigastric Region
Left hypochondriac Region
Right Lumbar Region
Umbilical Region
Left Lumbar Region
Right Iliac (inguinal) Region
Hypogastric (Pubic) Region
Left Iliac (inguinal) Region
VII. Abdominal Quadrants
Right Upper Quadrant
Left Upper Quadrant
Right Lower Quadrant
Left Lower Quadrant