Dani Chandler English 203 Dr. Danielle Muller 7 December 2010 From Egypt to Greece, and Back Again: Recognizing the Transmission of Knowledge in Antiquity Annotated Bibliography Asante, Molefi Kete. “An African Origin of Philosophy: Myth or Reality.” City Press July 2004: Asante.net. Web. 18 Nov. 2010. Originally published as a news article, I downloaded from Dr, Molefi Kete Asante’s personal web site. This article challenges the widely held belief that philosophy originated with the Greeks, as if “the Greeks pre-dated all other people when it came to discussion of concepts of beauty, art, numbers, sculpture, [and] medicine of social organization.” It also argues that the etymology of the word ‘philosophy,’ is not Greek, but Egyptian. There are the standard quotes by various Greek historians, philosophers, and writers (including Homer), regarding their studies in Egypt, as well as their attribution of Egypt’s transference of culture to the Greeks. There is also discussion of the systematic stripping away of Africa’s capabilities. This is a short, but very well thought out and informative article. Asante’s web site is quite impressive, and a welcome, though late, addition to my research. Asante, Molefi Kete. “Race in Antiquity: Truly Out of Africa.” Asante.net. Web. 19 Nov. 2010. This article is actually listed on Asante’s web site under the category of ‘scholarly papers,’ therefore I have no idea of its original source of publication. Asante’s essay is particularly 2 interesting, and relevant to my research, as it addresses Mary Lefkowitz’s book, Not Out of Africa, and its arguments (embittered attacks) against Martin Bernal’s Black Athena, as well as scholarly repudiations of Egypt’s contributions to western civilization in general. And in the process of doing so restates the claims of ancient Greek historians, such as Aristotle, who reported that the Egyptians were the originators of geometry and mathematics. It decries Lefkowitz’s (and others) attempts at “creating clouds of suspicion about scholarly colleagues,” in order to support a biased and exclusively Eurocentric agenda. Asante also states that Afrocentricity promotes a pluralistic view of cultures, without hierarchy. Bernal, Martin. Black Athena: The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization, Volume I: The Fabrication of Ancient Greece 1785 - 1985 New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1987. Print. In his study of Hebrew, Bernal noticed striking similarities between it and Greek. Upon further study he decided “that ancient Greek accounts of Egyptian influence on their civilization should be taken seriously.” This led to his writing of Black Athena, which functions under the premise that Greek culture arose as a direct result of colonization, around 1500 B.C.E., by Egyptians and Phoenicians, who civilized its inhabitants. And, Bernal argues, “Greeks continued to borrow heavily form Near Eastern cultures.” This text discusses and analyzes the particulars of: The ‘Ancient’ and ‘Aryan’ models of Greek history. The former being the conventional view among the Greeks of antiquity, that Greek culture was, indeed, influenced by the Egyptians, as well as Semites. The latter (Aryan Model), which developed during the first half of the nineteenth century, Bernal explains, “denies the truth of Egyptian settlements, and questions those of the Phoenicians.” And then there is what he refers to as the ‘Extreme’ Aryan Model, which flourished during two periods of heavy anti-Semitism, the 1890’s, and the 1920’s and 30’s, 3 which denies Phoenician influence. Hence, the “Fabrication of Greece.” These more recent models are analyzed through discussion of the writings of various conservative scholars, and the times in which they (models) took hold. He recommends a ‘return to the Ancient Model’ with revision; that including: setting an earlier date for Egyptian and Phoenician colonization of Greece—2nd millennium. I find Bernal’s work to be extremely scholarly, as well as exciting in its undeniable attention to detail. Unfortunately, my use of Black Athena is limited to Vol. I; I was unable to locate Vol. II in a timely manner. Volume I considers the writings of Greeks of antiquity, and their attitudes regarding their distant past, as well as the transference of religion, mathematics, science, and linguistics (quite technical, and at this time somewhat beyond my grasp). In accordance with my thesis, I will be focusing on the Egyptian aspect of cultural transference to Greece. Drake, St. Clair. Black Folk Here And There. California: University of California, 1987. Print. Drake intends for Black Folk Here and There to function as a coping tool for African-Americans. He says: “Great myths are always part of group coping strategies.” And this work is indeed of mythological proportion, as it covers a wide range of time and space. Though it begins with “an examination of the Nile Valley civilizations, after a brief discussion of the ‘Ambivalent Exiles’ from Africa who found themselves evolving as part of North American societies,” it sort of works in reverse, moving from the more recent to the distant past. It sweeps across a broad spectrum of topics, including, racism in various guises and times (into the twentieth-century), Black perspectives on racism, theories of color prejudice, and trans-racial evaluations. After which, the discussion moves to the Nile Valley of antiquity (where my research essay begins). Thereafter, the topics range from Negro origins and African prehistory, Egypt before the 4 pharaohs, the various Egyptian dynasties, the rise and fall of the Ethiopian dynasty (Twentyfifth), to the Hellenizing of Egypt. It winds up with a discussion of the black self-image. One of the things that I appreciate most about Drake’s highly scholarly work is the objective way in which he approaches the opinions and arguments of the other scholars work that he references. Regardless of obvious bias on the part of certain anthropological authorities, he is able to glean what is relevant and pertinent to his subject matter. I find his work to be honest, philosophical, inspirational, and extremely well written, yet easily understood—accessible. Draper, Robert. “Black Pharaohs: An Ignored Chapter in History Tells of a Time When Kings from Deep in Africa Conquered Ancient Egypt.” National Geographic Feb. 2008: 34+. Expanded Academic ASAP. Web. 1 Oct. 2010. This article is primarily concerned with the Kushite (Nubian) King, Piye, and his conquest of Egypt in the year 730 B.C.E. Prior to this conquest, Piye “had ruled over his own kingdom in Nubia … But he considered himself the true ruler of Egypt as well, the rightful heir to the spiritual traditions [of] Ramses and Thutmose III.” Piye was the first in a line of Nubian Pharaohs who ruled Egypt for nearly a century—the twenty-fifth dynasty. This includes Piye’s brother, Shabaka, and son, Taharaqa, whose conquests and accomplishments are discussed. Besides Piye’s conquest of Egypt, his politics, philosophies, religious practices, death, and elaborate entombment in Sudan are detailed. At the time of his historic conquest, Piye’s dark skin was a non-issue. This fact is offered as clarification that racism was not a factor in the world of antiquity. There is also a brief and general detailing of the discovery (in the early 1900’s) of the black pharaohs, and the resulting attempt that was made by Harvard Egyptologist, George Reisner, to assign to these pharaohs the status of light-skinned Egypto-Libyans, as he did not believe that blacks could have been responsible for the monuments he was excavating. This 5 article’s intent is to address a general neglect of Nubian history. I find this period particularly interesting, and applicable to my thesis, as much of it is concerned with the time in which Homer is said to have lived. “Egypt, Not Greece, Inspired Western Civilization.” Africa News 9 Oct. 2008: LexisNexis. Web. 7 Oct. 2010. This article begins with mentioning that “Herodotus, Plato, Aristotle, and Hippocrates all acknowledged the debt owed by Greece to Egypt.” It speaks of (though not in great detail) the ways in which the Greeks “borrowed from Egyptian art, architecture, astronomy, mathematics, medicine, and religion.” There is also a good deal about Ethiopia’s agricultural innovations, and a mention of Egypt being the birthplace of beer. The facts contained within this article (though sparse), support the premise of my paper. It is not made clear whether this article is excerpted from Bruce Strachan’s book Ancient Egypt: A First Look at People of the Nile, or if he wrote the article as a separate entity. “Egypt; Afrikan History Month: Why Egypt Matters.” Africa News 6 Feb. 2009: LexisNexis. Web. 7 Oct. 2010. This article states that Egypt matters because it is the classic civilization responsible for producing the principles of mathematics, physics, chemistry, writing, architecture, and more— principals that we take for granted as being established by the Greeks. Primarily, this piece intends to clear up Ghanaian’s (many if not all) misconceptions that the fair skinned populace comprising today’s Egypt are representative of the areas original people—who were indeed ‘black Africans’. The reason for this misconception (it is stated) being the deliberate and systematic effort of European and Arab historians to falsify history by “implying that Afrikan 6 people did not have the intellectual ability [or] capacity to cultivate [the] civilization that was Egypt.” Underscoring this information are details from “in depth, measured and comprehensive presentations” given by African historians Cheikh Diop and L. Obenga, at the United Nations cultural section UNESCO in 1978, intended specifically to establish the racial make-up of ancient Egypt. One of the more interesting facts: The oldest medical treaty in the world is called the Edwin Smith papyri. Written over 4000 years ago by Imhotep, “the real father of medicine”, it is wrongly called the Hippocratic Oath. This short article is long on facts that are relevant to my research. Egypt: Exciting New Themes From Black History Africa News 3 Feb. 2002: LexisNexis 14 Oct. 2010. Web. This article poses good questions that are relevant to my thesis. Such as: “Who built Thebes?” And, “Why is there a Thebes in Egypt and Greece?” It addresses the relation of the higher civilizations of ancient Africa—and their obvious influences, to the greater parts of ancient (as well as contemporary) western civilization. The recurring theme being, Egypt as a common factor in the names and characteristics of cities, gods, mythology, and even the continent of Europe, named after “a jet-black demi-goddess.” It also discusses the geographical disbursement and mixing of many of the ancients, as well as their origins. It is a short article with very interesting and verifiable information. Homer. Robert Fagles, translator. The Iliad. New York: Penguin Group, 1990. Print. Fagles edition of The Iliad is scholarly with a translator’s preface that discusses the life, or lack such, of Homer. There is a 70 page introduction that gives a brief summary of the story within the epic, and a discussion of the historical accuracy as it relates to what historians have laid out. 7 It covers spellings and pronunciations of Homeric Names, and includes maps of the Homeric geography of Mainland Greece, the Peloponnese, the Aegean and Asia Minor, as well as Troy and its vicinity. It includes a lot of technical and scholarly analysis of the work, and also discusses the painstakingly primitive manner and material in which it was most probably originally executed, and contemplation of whether or not Homer was literate and could write or whether he perhaps used a scribe. I believe the arrived at conclusion was that Homer was indeed literate and that he did conceive the entire work—over a long period of time. And then there is a character by character analysis, including the gods and troy. It is a very well thought out seriously conducted project—to the point of intimidation. I like it very much, the translation seems modern while maintaining the noble and epic quality. Kenya: “What’s in a Name?” Africa News 27 Aug. 2007: LexisNexis 14 Oct. 2010. Web. Keita, Maghan. “Deconstructing the Classical Age: Africa and the Unity of the Mediterranean World.” The Journal of Negro History 79.2 (1994: 147 +. Expanded Academic ASAP. Web. 30 Nov. 2010. This article is concerned with mythology and its relevance in tracing the genealogy of everyone from Dorian kings to Heracles and Andromeda back to Egypt and Ethiopia. Maghan gives outlines and plot development of various myths along with citations in a very professional manner. Her closing paragraph asserts that Homer in his poems was working within the mythological and historical framework of Egypt, i.e., Africa. Very well done. The opening of this article is concerned with the question: What would Kenya call itself if it had never been colonized by Britain? There is also speculation as to whether there would even be such a place geopolitically. Kenya having been, up until colonization, “inhabited by dozens of 8 ethnic communities at various levels of socio-economic development and with disparate strategic and demographical strengths, most completely independent of one another.” This all leads up to the little known fact that thousands of years ago “the African littoral of the Indian Ocean … was known to the civilized world as Azania.” A term encountered by the writer of this piece, when he, or she, began studying “Cushitic and Egyptian theogony, Canaanite, Sumerian, Vedic and Mesoamerican pantheons and what is know by the misnomer of ‘Greek mythology.” From this point on the article deals exclusively with the writer’s discovery that neither the origin, nor epicenter of the stories of Greek mythology are Greek, or Hellenic, or Aryan. The writer acknowledges that the stories became Greek when Hellenic mythographers became the first to put them in writing. There is discussion of the various elements that root them in the African tradition, such as the “goddess worship of the Hamitic natives,” and what has been altered so that they fit the patriarchal tendencies of the “invading Semitio-Aryans.” This is particularly interesting to me, as well as relevant to this research paper which is inspired by Homer’s The Iliad. “Most Ancient Egypt: Discoveries that Add Thousands of Years to History.” Los Angeles Times (1886-1922) 18 Jul. 1900, ProQuest Historical Newspapers Los Angeles Times (18811987), ProQuest. Web. 12 Oct. 2010. This article announces the results of work conducted by Professor Flinders Petrie, in winter of 1899, at Abydos, “the most ancient site of Egyptian civilization.” This article states that these discoveries “carr[ied] conviction to the minds of the unbelieving as to the reality of the men and women who were alive 8000 years ago.” This site was particularly important, as the gods, Isis and Osiris, had their chief alters there. French explorer, M. E. Ameleneau discovered the actual tombs of “the supposed gods” Isis and Osiris, in 1895 and 1896, which supported the theory that 9 the first gods of men were the chiefs of tribes. It then goes on to detail the construction, and contents of the tombs of the kings of the first dynasty. Most interesting (I find), is that the items contained within offered proof of the Egyptians extensive traveling and commercial relations with other countries—near and far. A particularly relevant article, as it involves the then ‘current’ discovery of a greater than previously known aspect of Egyptian civilization. Ringle, Ken. “A Professor’s Collision Course; Classics Scholar Mary Lefkowitz Shakes up Academia with Her Critique of Afrocentrism.” The Washington Post 11 Jun. 1996: LexisNexis. Web. 13 Oct. 2010. This article focuses on Mary Lefkowitz’s scholarly publication, Not Out of Africa: How Afrocentrism Became an Excuse to Teach Myth as History, of which it gives a fairly good (I assume) detailing. I am including this article because it provides not only a philosophical balance of what this research paper outlines, but is an out and out contradiction of the work and arguments of Martin Bernal, St. Clair Drake, and William Chancellor. In her book she addresses the “outlandish” claims of afrocentric authors; claims that she says are lacking supporting evidence. Within the article, she specifically addresses Bernal’s Black Athena: “Until then (reviewing his book) I really had no notion how much craziness was out there.” This article details quite a few of the “so-called” afrocentric claims of these authors (and others), as well as Lefkowitz’s rebuttals. Still, Lefkowitz does admit that the ancient Egyptians were far more advanced than the Greeks in some areas. Such as astronomy, of which she says, the Egyptians perfected a genuine system, while the Greeks dabbled in astrology. She also says that the Egyptians were first in basic mathematics, but that the Greeks were responsible for the evolution of basic mathematical theories, “the real basis of western thought.” This piece gives a brief bio of Lefkowitz’s life, education, experience as an educator, and explores the thought process behind 10 her passion for upholding the standard concept of the beginnings of western civilization. It also lists a few of the many laurels that Lefkowitz’s scholarly work has earned her from certain segments of the academic community. “Story of Egypt: Lecture by a Traveler Before the Ebell Society.” Los Angeles Times (18861922) 19 Jun. 1896, ProQuest Historical Newspapers Los Angeles Times (1881-1987), ProQuest. Web. 12 Oct. 2010. This article covers a lecture given by, James B. Scott, who had just returned from a two year stay in Egypt. It is stated that the lecture began with a reference to Herodotus, followed a discussion of the writings of a number of noted Egyptologists. This article presents Scott as being passionately involved with, and knowledgeable of, the history, and magnificent leadership of Egypt in art, philosophy, and science. Scott presented a history of the great dynasties, and compared the stories of the hieroglyph with the Mosaic history of the early Egyptians in connection with the Hebrews, and in doing so revealed a number of discrepancies. It is stated that Scott was given only a short amount of time to conduct his lecture. However, it seems that he made the most of whatever time was allotted, as he was able to discus ancient Egypt’s history, geography, religion, as well as the supposed disposition of its original inhabitants. Afterward, there was a thirty minute viewing of photographs that Scott had taken and brought back with him. I would think that at the time, this was an important and exciting topic in the American press, as archaeologists were still on the brink of new discoveries, and many of these facts were probably unknown to the general public. “Treasures of Pharaoh dazzle Discoverers: Titled Briton Tells Amazing Wealth of Ancient Egyptian Art Found in Tomb.” Los Angeles Times (1886-1922) 24 Dec. 1922, ProQuest Historical Newspapers Los Angeles times (1881-1987), ProQuest. Web. 9 Oct. 2010. 11 This is a very interesting article (its narrative is extremely visual), wherein, the Earl of Carnarvon presents a vivid reenactment of his discovery of the tomb of “Tutankhamen.” He takes the reader on a journey down the two-and-a-half mile winding track road that leads to the Valley of the Kings, the ancient necropolis of Thebes, on west bank of the Nile. Where “the arid plain and foothills are everywhere dotted with burial pits, with a royal mortuary temple here and there, while mingled among the relics of ancient days stand the mud houses of the modern inhabitants.” Carnarvon describes the five-hundred foot limestone cliffs, which are also honeycombed with plundered tombs. The fact that I have seen the Tutankhamen exhibit makes his tale of the events leading into and through the actual tomb quite exciting. Arriving at the Luxor their first task was to clear a staircase of some eighteen stairs. From here the reader is taken on a step by step journey to the inner funeral chamber (by candlelight), and treated to the resulting awe and astonishment of the entire archeological party—fascinating. Resting eyes on the elaborately carved furniture, jeweled robes, the throne, and finally the resplendent pharaoh himself, Carnarvon said it was a “revelation of the refinement of Egyptian art.” I don’t know how relevant this article is to my research, but it certainly sets the mood. “Uganda; African Empires and Their Locations.” Africa News 26 April 2008: LexisNexis. Web. 13 Oct. 2010. “African Empires and Their Locations.” Africa News 26 April 2008: LexisNexis. Web. 13 Oct. 2010. This article conforms its title as it lists present day as well as ancient African empires. It function under the premise that people often misunderstand where these nation actually are as Africa has undergone such fragmentation and colonization. Also so that history may be read correctly it is important to known exactly what names belong to which people, i.e., Libya, which, is an entirely different people today. 12 Williams, Chancellor. The Destruction Of Black Civilization: Great Issues of a Race, From 4500 B.C. To 2000 A.D. Illinois: Third World Press, 1987. Print. As Williams puts it, this book is “written [so] that black John Doe, cab driver or laborer, and Jane Doe, housemaid or waitress, as well as college students … could read and understand the message from their forefathers and foremothers.” Originally published in 1971, and republished 1n 1987, it is a predecessor to many publications that have followed, which discuss the history of Africa in relation to itself, rather than to Arabs and Europeans, who have occupied the continent, but, are no more African than the European occupants of the United States, are Native American. This was a new approach to the study of the history of the Black race. As the title suggests this is a work of wide scope, which covers the great history, as well as the tragic demise, of the civilization of the “Land of the Blacks.” William’s research consists of 16 years of field study, largely based on oral recounts of history, by illiterate people in the African “bush country,” that possessed a “storehouse of wisdom.” This oral research, of course, was conducted only after extensive research by traditional means, such as written records and archeological data. This work argues for a systematic and deliberate (Arab and European), as well as incidental (climatic), and internal (inter-African conflict), destruction of African civilization. Rather than providing a source of the transference of religion, art, and science from Egypt to so-called western civilization (the purpose of my research), William’s book is more concerned with the multitude of Asians and Europeans in Lower Egypt and their appropriation of not only the name “Egyptian” for themselves, but the achievements of the blacks. Still, it is a highly valuable source of information. Williams presents a persuasive argument that: The land of the Blacks is the “cradle of civilization.” Winters, Clyde. “The Black Greeks.” Rasta Livewire 19 Nov. 2010. Web. 13 This article argues that: The most ancient Greeks were blacks, and that the European Greeks learned the liberal arts and sciences from them, as well as from the Egyptians. It begins by stating that Eurocentrist scholars, in order to deny the African origin of civilization, attack Martin Bernal’s Black Athena. However, according to this piece Bernal’s book has nothing to do with afrocentrism, as he suggests that Semites from Phoenicia and the Semitic Hykos rulers of Egypt, civilized Greece, not black Africans (not completely accurate). It goes on to mention several top Afrocentric scholars, who through the study and analyses of the writings of classical authors, as well as anthropological, linguistic, and historical evidence, came to the conclusion that the original Greeks were indeed blacks. This opinion is supported by the Olympian creation myths, which state that the first groups to appear on earth were ‘Libyco-Thracians.’ Furthermore, it states: Libyans were Proto-Saharan, as were the Thracians, some of whom were descended from Kushite and Egyptian troops stationed at Thrace by Thutmose III, when he conquered Asia and Europe. Also, the Greek historical records indicate that “many ancient settlers of the Aegean came from Africa.” Winters, also informs that the Greek epic poems (including Homer’s), are stories of African people. To support these arguments, this piece contains many explanations, as well as photos of ancient art (containing people of seemingly African origin. It also list several authors to whom this research is accredited, such as G. W. Parker, Cheikh Anta Diop, C. A. Winters, and J. A. Rodgers. However, since I do not at this time have access to their work, this information (though interesting) is of somewhat limited value to my research.