The French Come to Louisiane The French wanted to expand their trading area in the New World by finding a river that would take them to China or to the Indies. They talked of the Northwest Passage, that mysterious water route through the North American continent. In 1673, French fur trader Louis Joliet and Jesuit priest Father Marquetteset out from Quebec to explore a great river that the Native Americans described. They thought the river might lead them across North America to Asia. In birchbark Indian canoes, the expedition paddled and floated down that river —the Mississippi. Indian food such as corn and dried buffalo meat nourished them on the trip. The group made it as far down the Mississippi as the mouth of the Arkansas River. At a Quapaw Indian village, they learned that traveling further could be dangerous. The powerful tribes downriver could defend themselves with Spanish guns. Was there a Spanish fort somewhere to the south? Unwilling to risk an encounter with armed Indians or Spanish soldiers, the French exploring party returned north. Exploring the Mississippi René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle had long dreamed of finding a water route to China. The other Canadian traders laughed at him by calling his Canadian trading post LaChine (“China”). But La Salle’s goal and his hopes took him through years of delays until he was finally able to begin his journey. His trip was made easier by his choice for his assistant, Henri de Tonti (TONE teh). A colorful character known for his bravery and courage, Tonti had lost a hand in battle. According to legend, he amputated the damaged arm himself. This story and his brave deeds earned him the respect of the Indians, who named him “Iron Hand.” La Salle set out from Canada with Tonti, soldiers, priests, and Indians with their families. They entered the upper Mississippi River in early February 1682. On April 9, they reached the mouth of the river. There, in a solemn and formal ceremony, La Salle claimed all the land drained by the Mississippi River for Louis XIV. He honored the French king by naming the land Louisiana, which means “Land of Louis.” La Salle dressed in his ceremonial red coat trimmed with gold lace, which he had brought for the important event. As part of the ceremony, a Catholic priest celebrated a mass with prayers and songs in Latin. Those words rang out from the natural levee in what is today Plaquemines Parish. The priest was with the group because one purpose of the trip was to spread the official religion of France. Today the location is marked with a monument topped with a large wooden cross. The monument represents the large log cross La Salle placed on the spot. A brass plaque inscribed in French tells the story of La Salle and the Mississippi River. Eager to continue his important mission, La Salle returned to France to report his discovery to King Louis XIV. The king rewarded him with a small fleet of ships and three hundred colonists and directed him to establish a new colony. (A colony is a group of people who settle in a distant land but who still keep their ties to their native land.) La Salle’s return trip was a failure. After sailing into the Gulf of Mexico, La Salle missed the mouth of the Mississippi River and ended up at Matagorda Bay in present-day Texas. The colonists were frightened and frustrated. Many had died at sea, and more died on the barren beach. La Salle then set out to lead the remaining colonists overland to Canada. The journey ended horribly when the men mutinied and murdered La Salle. La Salle’s dreams had ended in a nightmare of disaster. The French Colony La Salle did not establish a colony on the Gulf Coast. But his claim in the name of France set off a chain of events that led to the first French colony. When the other European kings heard that France had claimed the Mississippi, they reacted strongly. France’s claim was a threat to the New World colonies of Spain and Great Britain. The Spanish government built a fort on the Gulf of Mexico at Pensacola Bay to protect its claims. The British hoped to build a colony at the mouth of the Mississippi River. When Louis XIV heard of these plans, he knew a French fort must be built to guard the Mississippi. A strong military leader with knowledge of North America was needed. The wilderness experience of French Canadian officers prepared them for this challenge. The king chose one of those commanders—Pierre Le Moyne, Sieur d’Iberville. To join him, Iberville chose his younger brother, Jean Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville. Although only eighteen, Bienville was an experienced and battle-scarred sailor. The two brothers would leave their names on the map and the history of Louisiana. Fort Maurepas Iberville stopped for supplies at a French colony in the West Indies and then set sail for the Gulf of Mexico. Spanish soldiers had finished their fort at Pensacola Bay just months before the French arrived. When Iberville sailed into the Gulf of Mexico, he realized the Spanish held the best harbor near the Mississippi River. Continuing westward, Iberville came upon islands near the coast of present day Mississippi. He named one Ship Island because it provided a good harbor for their ships. They built a few primitive huts for a temporary camp; then they set out to find the mouth of the Mississippi. Iberville described the discovery in his journal: “March 3, Mardi Gras Day . . . I went up this river . . . two leagues and a half above the mouth it forks into three branches.” To make sure that this was the Mississippi, Iberville and Bienville questioned the local Indians. One chief told them of the “speaking bark” left by another Frenchman. Bienville offered a reward of an axe for the message. Soon, another chief brought him a letter Tonti had left for La Salle in 1685. La Salle never saw that letter because he never made it back to the Mississippi. But more than thirteen years later, the unclaimed letter spoke an encouraging message to the French explorers. They knew they had found the great Mississippi River. The mouth of the river was a poor location for Iberville’s fort. The Gulf Coast offered a better harbor for ships and seemed to have better land for a colony. There were plenty of trees on the coast to build the fort. The completed fort, built near present-day Biloxi in Mississippi, was named Fort Maurepas (MOR eh PAH) to honor a French government official. A Struggling Colony When the fort was finished, Iberville returned to France for more supplies, soldiers, and settlers. While he was gone, the little fort suffered from a food shortage and lack of supplies. The men were also afraid of an attack by the Chickasaw, who were allies of the British. The British colonies that had been established along the Atlantic coast threatened French efforts to claim and control the Mississippi River Valley. While Iberville was in France, Bienville explored the river. On one trip, he met a twelve-gun British vessel coming up the river toward his much smaller boat. Claiming that he had many more troops in the area, Bienville informed the British captain that he controlled the river. He hinted that he would attack if the British did not leave peacefully. The British captain believed Bienville’s bluff, turned around, and sailed away. Bienville’s action drove the British away and protected French claims on the Mississippi River. English Turn, south of New Orleans, is still marked on today’s maps. The local Indians were also a challenge to the French. In the beginning, the Indians shared their food and skills with the strangers. A young ship’s carpenter later wrote about the music and dancing the two cultures shared. A young soldier had brought along a special possession, his violin. With his music, the soldiers taught the Indians to “figure dance.” In return, the Indians invited the soldiers to learn their dances. Later, when the soldiers were starving, they were invited to live with the Indians. In spite of this acceptance, the French treated the Indians as conquered people. They took Indians as slaves and started conflicts between tribes. The French believed that if the Indian tribes fought each other, they would not join together against the French. Other Forts The incident at English Turn convinced Iberville that the French needed a fort on the Mississippi River. He chose a spot fifty-four miles above the mouth of the river to build Fort Mississippi. Iberville placed his brother Bienville in charge of the fort. Fort Maurepas, the French headquarters, also needed to be moved. The first site for Fort Maurepas had flooded, and the sandy soil was useless for growing crops. Problems often developed with the first sites selected, and the forts were relocated several times during these early years. The new fort, Fort Louis, was located to keep the English out of Mobile Bay. The fort later became the city of Mobile, Alabama. Henri de Tonti, who had returned to Louisiana to help with the new colony, commanded Fort Louis until his death from yellow fever in 1704. Leadership After setting up the new fort at Mobile, Iberville went back to France again. While he was there, a war broke out in Europe and Iberville was required to return to military duty. This war had the full attention of the French government, and Iberville’s request for colonists and supplies for Louisiana was ignored. The war created hard times in France and an even more dismal life in the Louisiana colony. French supply ships sailed to places involved in the war effort. Abandoned, the colony was left without proper defense or adequate supplies at a time when it was still very shaky. Iberville never did return to the colony. In 1702, he left Europe for Louisiana but died in Havana from yellow fever. In 1701, young Bienville became the leader of the colony. The colony was so weak that Bienville had to obtain food from the French colony in the West Indies and even from the Spanish at Pensacola. These two leaders of early Louisiana faced criticism. After Iberville’s death, he was investigated for making money for himself from war supplies. Dissatisfied officials and priests passed along complaints against Bienville to France. Other colonists supported Bienville and blamed the problems on those who opposed him. The colonial officials quarreled throughout the French period. The confusing structure of the government caused many of those conflicts. Two officials shared the authority over the colony. The governor was in charge of the military and the general management of the colony. The business manager, called the commissary commissioner, was in charge of the budget and parts of the judicial system. These two officials were expected to check on each other and report any problems to France. After the costly war in Europe ended, the French king and his government could not afford to maintain Louisiana. But France still needed the colony as a buffer against the British. The British colonies were pushing further and further inland to trade with the Native Americans. France needed to find a new way to fund the colony. King Louis XIV decided to allow a businessman to run the colony. He established a proprietorship and gave an individual a charter (contract) to operate the colony as a business. The proprietor was given almost total control and, in return, had to meet certain requirements. The proprietor had to send supplies and settlers to the colony regularly, and the colonial government had to follow French law. Antoine Crozat In 1712, the French royal government gave the proprietorship of Louisiana to Antoine Crozat (KRO zah). This businessman had loaned money to the king from his vast fortune. To make more money, Crozat expected to find gold and silver in the colony. He had little interest in settlers and agriculture; his primary motive was profit. After Crozat signed the contract to operate the colony as a business, he selected a new governor. He chose an experienced colonial governor, Antoine de Lamothe, Sieur de Cadillac. Cadillac had set up a trading post that later became Detroit, Michigan. Despite that success, Cadillac had difficulties as a leader and soon made mistakes. His troubles began when he visited Indian villages along the river and refused to smoke the calumet. (The calumet was the ceremonial pipe used by the tribal leaders.) Cadillac’s refusal was more than an insult to his hosts; it was like a threat of war. He also faced the ongoing conflicts among government officials. Despite these complaints, Cadillac deserves credit for organizing the colony. He established the Superior Council to help govern the colony. The Superior Council was in charge of judicial matters and was presided over by the commissary commissioner. Some of Cadillac’s ideas, such as taming buffalo to clip the wool, were completely impractical and must have amused the Indians. But he was the first official to suggest that indigo and tobacco should be grown to sell. He also understood that good colonists were needed, and he tried to convince Crozat to send more people to Louisiana. Natchitoches One of Cadillac’s best decisions was to select Louis Juchereau de St. Denis to command a fort at Natchitoches. St. Denis had learned about this area when he explored along the Red River. He had met the Caddo Indians and improved his knowledge of the Indian languages. His frontier skills built his career and reputation. Born in Canada and educated in Paris, St. Denis knew both worlds. The French built Fort St. Jean Baptiste (present-day Natchitoches) on the banks of the Red River in 1714. They planned to build trade with the nearby Spanish even though this was illegal. The French believed that the isolated forts in Spanish Texas would be willing to overlook those laws. To seek this trade, St. Denis headed south into the Spanish colony. At the fort in what is now Eagle Pass, Texas, he was detained but considered a guest. While he was there, he fell in love with the granddaughter of the Spanish commandant. Before the two could marry, the commandant sent St. Denis to Mexico City. The viceroy (the highest-ranking Spanish official) told St. Denis that trade between the Spanish colonies and French Louisiana would not be allowed. But rather than jailing him as a smuggler, the viceroy asked St. Denis to escort a Spanish priest and soldiers to Nacogdoches, Texas. The Spanish wanted to reopen an old mission and fort there. When St. Denis returned to Texas, however, the new Spanish viceroy did not welcome him. He was jailed and then sent away with a warning to stay out of Spanish territory. now had a Spanish wife. This contraband (illegal) trade was important to the border forts. French traders brought in pack trains with guns, ammunition, powder, knives, mirrors, and brandy to exchange for horses, cattle, animal hides, and silver. The Spanish wanted the French goods, especially medicine; the French wanted the Spanish silver. Crozat’s Failure The Louisiana colony continued to struggle. When Louis XIV died in 1715, government support for the colony died too. The French colonists were not interested in farming. Trade with the Spanish was possible only through smuggling. Trade with the Indians was a failure. British traders paid more for furs and sold European goods to the Indians cheaper. As a businessman, Crozat failed to make a profit from the colony. He never sent supplies in the amounts required by his contract. He considered any money he spent on the colony as an expense, not as an investment for future profits. He wanted gold and silver, but they did not exist. After holding the colony for five years, Crozat gave it up. The Company of the West The next proprietor of the colony was not one person but a group of investors. The head of this group—John Law—had organized the Bank of France and developed the paper money system for France. Law was considered to be an brilliant banker. But he was also a gambler and a risk-taker. In 1717, Law created the Company of the West to operate the Louisiana colony. Law sold shares of ownership in the Company to investors. He planned to make money for the investors and for the French government. Later, the Company of the West was combined with other trading companies and became the Company of the Indies. Law promised his investors a huge profit from the Louisiana colony. The chance to make money convinced more and more people to buy shares in the Company. The value of the Company began to rise. At one point, the price of a share increased from 500 to 18,000 livres (the French unit of money). Meanwhile Law made plans for the colony. Bienville returned as governor. He had long wanted to build a trading center for the Mississippi Valley. Now, with support from the Company, he could begin his project. He chose a site on a crescent (bend) of the Mississippi River bordered by Lake Pontchartrain. In 1718, Bienville designed and laid out the settlement that became the city of New Orleans. When he and his men arrived at the location, they had to chop their way through river cane as large as their legs while watching carefully for the alligators they heard roaring nearby! This swampy wilderness, however, could not become a town without more people. All of the directors of the Company received large land grants. In return for the parcels of land, the directors were required to bring settlers to live on the land. The plan seemed practical, but who would go to this faraway wilderness? The French peasants (poor, small farmers) did not want to go because life in Louisiana did not sound any better than their lives in France. The stories from Louisiana had been confusing during those early years. Angry fathers had threatened to send their misbehaving sons to the colony. Was it an untamed paradise or a cruel punishment? A Search for Colonists To change the image of Louisiana, Law used some of the earliest real estate advertising in history. When the French did not respond, he targeted people who lived in a place where war made life difficult. In the area that would later become Germany, small kingdoms fought for power. The people who lived there struggled to survive and dreamed of a better life. They read about a Louisiana paradise in handbills printed in their own language. The words of John Law along with their hopeless situation convinced them to take the risk. These German farm families settled on land above New Orleans. The French called this settlement Cote Des Allemandes, the German Coast. These experienced, hard-working farmers cleared the land and planted gardens. They saved the colony by growing enough food to keep the people from starving. Once, when the German farmers brought garden produce to New Orleans, people fought over the food. Soldiers had to be called in to keep order. Even more settlers were needed. Unfortunately, the next effort did not bring farmers like the Germans. When no volunteers could be found, prisoners were sent to the colony instead of to jail. At first, the prisoners were non-dangerous criminals such as debtors and smugglers. But before long, the new arrivals included more dangerous criminals, who were unwilling or unable to work. People in France grew concerned when vagrants (homeless people) were shipped to the colony. The Company paid a “finder’s fee” for locating possible colonists; soon, citizens with jobs and families were kidnapped to collect the fee. Finally, the French government stopped this practice. But the colony continued to have other problems. Colonists complained that the Company never sent enough flour, fabric, wine, brandy, shirts, or shoes. When goods were available, they cost four times as much as they had in France. And when flour did arrive, it was usually bug infested. The lack of flour was a major problem. Wheat would not grow in the warm climate, and the French did not consider corn a proper food. They especially hated corn bread, because they had always eaten wheat bread. Sometimes wheat was sent down the river from the Illinois country, and the colonists were able to bake “proper” bread. The Collapse of the Mississippi Bubble Even as the colony struggled with these shortages and hardships, Law was promising that huge profits were just around the corner. People in France kept investing because they wanted to make money. The Company expanded, and the price of the stock rose—until the bubble burst in 1721. The investors began to suspect that their stock was worthless and demanded their money. The Company collapsed because it could not pay back the investors. This crash was called the Mississippi Bubble because the price of shares kept increasing like an inflating balloon until it burst and collapsed. When the scheme crashed, so did the world of John Law. The powerful man who had once advised the king of France had to flee Paris in disgrace. The Company of the Indies was given a new agreement and remained in charge of the colony. The colony needed money to stay alive, and the king still did not want the expense. Bienville continued as governor because of his experience in dealing with the problems. Louisiana needed an adequate army, more dependable settlers, and a good export crop. The Code Noir Slavery began in Louisiana in the early colonial days as a way to provide workers for the colony. A slave is a person who is bound to a life of service to others and who is considered property. Shiploads of slaves were first brought to the colony in 1716. The numbers continued to increase during the proprietorship of the Company. The slaves came from West Africa, where their cultures had long harvested rice and indigo. The Africans’ ability to grow rice added another staple food to the diet of the colony. Their knowledge and experience produced indigo and tobacco as Louisiana’s first cash crops. The colony also had vast areas of land that could be planted once they were cleared. The plantations (large estates or farms) grew one major crop for profit. Labor was needed to clear the land and produce those crops. At that time, slavery was an accepted way to obtain the large numbers of workers needed for the plantation system. The slaves had also been essential in building New Orleans. Not only did they provide strong labor, but many were skilled at carpentry and metalwork. From the early years, it was apparent the colony would not succeed without slave labor. With the increasing number of slaves, legal regulations were needed. Bienville established the Code Noir, a set of laws governing the conduct and treatment of slaves. The laws, established in 1724, were patterned after laws in other French colonies. Their purpose was to protect slaves as property. Rules were established for food, clothing, and health care. Sick and elderly slaves must be cared for. Slaves could not be forced to work on Sundays and were to be taught the Catholic religion. The laws also established many restrictions on the slaves. They were not allowed to carry weapons unless they were hunting, and they could not gather in crowds. The laws set harsh penalties for runaway slaves. A New Governor During these years, Bienville faced constant complaints. Because he was governor, the settlers blamed him when things went wrong. The Company and the king blamed him because the colony was not profitable. Finally, he was ordered back to France to explain his decisions about the colony. The Company chose one of its own dependable employees as the next governor— Etienne de Perier. This new governor was sent to bring harmony to the colony. While he knew little about the Louisiana colony, Perier was well respected in the French navy. His sense of fairness helped him deal with the problems, even without any colonial experience. The new governor wanted to find new settlers and more raw materials for export. He saw the forests of Louisiana as a source of resin, tar, and wood for barrels and ships’ masts, which were needed in France. Perier also wanted to improve trade with the successful French colonies of the West Indies and asked the French government to help. However, an incident that took place while Perier was governor eventually led to the end of the proprietorship. The Natchez Uprising In 1716, Bienville had built Fort Rosalie at the site of present-day Natchez on land belonging to the Natchez Indians. Early French visitors had described this tribe as the most civilized. The Natchez permitted the French fort in their homelands and were helpful to the colonists. A tobacco plantation had grown up around the fort. A crisis arose when the fort’s commander wanted the good land where a Natchez sacred village stood. He demanded that the Natchez move immediately. Deciding the French would never stop intruding on their land and lifestyle, the Natchez attacked Fort Rosalie without warning. Native American historians call this event the Natchez uprising. Over 250 colonists were killed. The French considered this a massacre, because it was so different from their idea of warfare. Governor Perier sent soldiers to destroy the Natchez as a tribe. Even so, the colonists blamed him for the massacre. They thought he should have responded when the commander first angered the Natchez. In addition, the French lost some of their best farms because few settlers wanted to stay in the area. This loss of the tobacco plantations and so many colonists was too much for the Company. The colony had never made any money for the Company, and the French government had never paid its share of the costs. By 1731, the Company handed the colony back to the king. In 1732, Louisiana once more became a royal colony. France would hold on to the colony for another thirty troublesome years. Bienville Returns When the king took control, Bienville was once again appointed governor of Louisiana. Many colonists were glad to see him return because of his experience with the Indians. The Natchez uprising had created fear of and resentment toward the Indians. Bienville’s first task was to calm the settlers and restore his ties with the Indians. He also faced other challenges. A thriving agriculture was important for success. But a shortage of livestock—farm animals such as horses, cows, pigs, chickens, and oxen—created hardships for everyone. The cows, pigs, and chickens provided much-needed food. The oxen and horses were needed for farm work, pulling the plows and carts. But what use was a team of oxen if the colonist had no plow? Even when good tools came from France, the prices were often too high for the people to buy them. Another serious problem was the inadequate supply of money. This kept the economy from developing much beyond the barter system. The colonists had not yet developed a stable cash crop, although some tobacco and indigo were being grown. The colonists continued to try to export forest products. But there were few ships available to transport goods, and those that were available charged high shipping rates. As a result, the colonists usually had to rely on barter and warehouse credit. When goods were not available in the warehouse, the colonists were given credit to use when another shipment came from France. Bienville struggled to ease the difficulties in the colony. He rationed the food supplies when necessary and pleaded with France for more supplies and soldiers. War with the Chickasaw The biggest problem Bienville faced was keeping peace between the colonists and the Indians. Even before the Europeans came, relations between the tribes were not always peaceful. Some of the hostilities were long-standing; others were more recent. Both the French and the British used these conflicts to pit one tribe against another for their own benefit. Each group struggled over the land and trade rights. The European traders had changed the Indians’ way of life. The older chiefs saw the danger of European trade goods. Tattooed Serpent, a chief of the Natchez, remarked, “Before the arrival of the French, we lived like men who could be satisfied with what they have . . . now we are like slaves who are not allowed to do as they please.” The Choctaw generally preferred the French, although British trade goods were of better quality and were delivered more dependably. The Choctaw chiefs sometimes played one colony against another for the benefit of their people. However, the Choctaw ties with the French had been weakened by Governor Perier. He had insisted on the right to select chiefs, awarding them medals as he tried to gain allies. These “medal chiefs” were not always the tribal leaders and had no real power. By dealing only with the chiefs he selected, Governor Perier had disrupted the tribal ways. Another large tribe, the Chickasaw, occupied the important heart of the Mississippi Valley. They were trading partners and allies with the British and enemies of the French and the Choctaw. The French became alarmed when the Chickasaw appeared to be making peace with their former enemies, the Choctaw. If the Choctaw became trading partners with the British, France’s colony would be threatened. When Bienville returned as governor, he was ordered to defeat the Chickasaw or sign a peace treaty. He demanded respect from the Indians, using tactics that had been successful in earlier conflicts. The Chickasaw had given refuge to some of the Natchez, and Bienville demanded that they be turned over to the French. When the Chickasaw refused, a war began that dragged on for several years. The British supplied the Chickasaw with weapons, and the French paid the Choctaw for Chickasaw scalps. After several defeats, Bienville believed the Chickasaw War was a failure. Discouraged, he retired as governor in 1742. Bienville had lost the war, many friends, and his confidence. A Different Kind of Governor In 1742, the French government sent Pierre Francois de Rigaud, Marquis de Vaudreuil to Louisiana as the next governor. Louisiana offered this new governor the opportunity to prove his leadership. He hoped to become governor of Canada, as his father had been. His kindness and dignity calmed some of the internal conflicts in the colony. Cooperation among the colonists was important because Indian conflicts continued. The new governor used his troops to halt Indian raids on settlements up and down the Mississippi River. After a major assault on the Chickasaw, Vaudreuil worked out a peace agreement. With the Indian threat reduced, the colony grew more prosperous, and living conditions improved in New Orleans. As governor, Vaudreuil established formal ceremonies and parties that copied the social life of the French palace of Versailles. His wife traveled the muddy streets of New Orleans in a four-horse carriage. He is even credited with having the first Louisiana Mardi Gras ball. As a compliment to his style, he was called “The Grand Marquis.” His reception welcoming the next governor included fountains of wine and a fireworks show. The Last French Years In 1752, Vaudreuil achieved his dream of becoming governor of Canada. Louis Billouart, Chevalier de Kerlerec (KAIR la rek) was appointed governor of the colony because of his strong military reputation. Those skills were needed to protect Louisiana from the British. When Kerlerec took office, the tensions between the French and the British were increasing, and the stage for the French and Indian War was being set. The colony’s defenses had to be strengthened. Unfortunately, like other governors before him, Kerlerec got caught up in squabbles with the other government official in the colony, the commissary commissioner. Kerlerec was a blunt military man who found these arguments petty and annoying. The constant friction and the complaints sent to France interfered with the new governor’s efforts and slowed the colony’s progress. It must have frustrated this military commander to be required to share control of the colony. He quickly tired of his post and requested permission to leave. However, he remained as governor until 1762, when the colony was given to Spain. Life in the Colony Life in French colonial Louisiana began as a struggle in a wilderness. But even in this challenging environment, people began to adapt their lifestyle to fit their location. The people faced daily hardships but also added some of the elements of culture that helped improve their lives. The People Many of the early explorers and promoters were hardy French Canadians. The free-spirited woodsmen or coureur-de-bois (“woods runner” in French) came and went from the colony, preferring their independent lifestyle to settling down in the colony. The early French colonists lacked the skills and drive needed to survive in the harsh environment. Many were more interested in looking for gold and silver than in making a home and life for themselves in the New World. It took the hardy German farmers to save the colony. And it was the labor of the African slaves that led to the colony’s economic growth. Even the soldiers were considered the rejects of the army by their own leaders. On the other hand, their pay was low, and they often did not have enough food or clothing. Women were scarce in the colony, and their absence made the colony more unstable. At various times during the French colonial period, young women were sent to the colony. In 1712, Madame Cadillac chaperoned a group of girls sent to Louisiana to become brides of the settlers. After 1727, the Ursuline nuns cared for new arrivals at their convent in New Orleans until they were married. The best known of this group were the casket girls who came in 1728. The young women received that title because each girl brought her trousseau, or household goods, in a casket, or barrel-like chest. Some of the other women who came from France brought nothing but a bad reputation. These were women from the streets of Paris, who were shipped to the colony to get them out of France. Religion The official religion of France, and the Louisiana colony, was Roman Catholic. The church was supported by the government. The church and the French government provided nuns and priests for the colony. Some of the early priests lived among the Indians as missionaries. The nuns and priests established the only schools. Mardi Gras and other church holidays were celebrated from the early days of the colony. The priests and nuns thought the people focused more on the celebration than the religious ceremony. They reported that the people were not very devout and did not attend church regularly. Lifestyles The population of Louisiana was between 6,000 and 7,000 when France gave up the colony. The people lived in New Orleans and along the Mississippi above the town. Settlements also had been established in Pointe Coupee and Natchitoches. Entertainment in New Orleans included card playing and gambling in taverns and coffee houses. Dances were held regularly. The people attended social events, even though it meant walking through muddy streets in their elegant clothing. The colony included a few elegant homes with high ceilings and glass window panes. They were furnished with fine upholstered furniture, gold mirrors, and silver tableware. Only a few people in the colony lived this well. Most colonists lived in houses made of logs or brick between posts. A mixture of mud and moss or deer hair was used to fill in the cracks. The French name for this mixture is bousillage. The windows had shutters but no glass. These houses had simple furniture, sometimes made by the homeowner. Instead of silver, the eating utensils were pewter. Most people wore clothing made from imported cloth. Only the wealthy wore the elegant clothing imported from France. No one made their own cloth until after the Acadian women came. The people knew almost nothing about the diseases that threatened their lives, and the treatment was sometimes as bad as the illness. Yellow fever, smallpox, and other diseases killed many of the colonists. A sailor, Jean Louis, left money in his will to provide a hospital for New Orleans. This is the beginning of Louisiana’s charity hospitals. Success or Failure Was the French colony of Louisiana a success or a failure? Did the colony do as well as it could have under the regulations of France? Did the hurricanes, mosquitoes, heat, and humidity overwhelm the colonists? Or, as so many historians have suggested, were the first colonists such a poor choice that they must be held responsible for the weaknesses of the colony? Did the leaders ofthe colony seek to benefit the colony or did too many of them try to make profits for themselves? Finding the right people for the colony was not the only challenge. The French colonial government suffered greatly from decisions made in France. These included trade restrictions and the lack of adequate funding and supplies. Every policy decision about Louisiana was made by those who had never seen the colony. No policy makers—Louis XIV, the royal advisors, Antoine Crozat, or John Law—ever ventured across the Atlantic to see the vast land they called Louisiana. Individual Newspaper project Directions: You are to complete a “copy” of the first Louisiane newspaper “the Moniteur de la Louisiane” on a sheet of 14x28 POSTER-BOARD which will be furnished, using BLACK INK, PENCIL COLORS, and the material given (photos and copy of chapter). 1. Using pictures given or drawn, create a newspaper from the French era 2. Include written summaries (1-2 paragraphs) of key events during the era. The events do not have to deal with the one topic. 3. Include political comics or draw comics of your own dealing with this time period 4. Include quotes, warnings, or other activities that would have occurred during this time period 5. Create a proper newspaper heading and create a name for your newspaper, example the Moniteur de la Louisiane. 6. You may use construction paper, poster board, pencils, pencil colors, PLUS it must be finished in BLACK INK. 4 Pts 3 Pts 2 Pts 1 Pt 0 Pt Writing and Organization Each section in the newspaper has a clear beginning, middle, and end. Almost all sections of the newspaper have a clear beginning, middle and end. Most sections of the newspaper have a clear beginning, middle and end. The newspaper has no clear beginning, middle or end. Writing and Mechanics Capitalization and punctuation are correct throughout the newspaper. All facts in the newspaper are accurate. Capitalization and punctuation is mostly correct throughout the newspaper. 99-90% of the facts in the newspaper are accurate. The newspaper has attractive formatting and well-organized information. There are 2-4 capitalization and/or punctuation errors in the newspaper. 89-80% of the facts in the newspaper are accurate. The newspaper has wellorganized information. All articles have headlines that accurately describe the content. All graphics have captions. Paper is missing some items. Most articles have headlines that accurately describe the content. Most graphics have captions. Less than half of the sections of the newspaper have a clear beginning, middle and end. There are more than 5 capitalization or punctuation errors in the newspaper. Fewer than 80% of the facts in the newspaper are accurate. The newspaper’s formatting and organization of material is confusing to the reader. Articles are missing bylines OR many articles do not have adequate headlines OR many graphics do not have captions. Content and Accuracy Attractiveness and Organization The newspaper has exceptionally attractive formatting and wellorganized information. Banner, headline, captions, artwork All articles have headlines that capture the reader's attention and accurately describe the content. Paper has a banner, headlines, captions and artwork. Date assignment is issued: 00-00-00 There are many capitalization or punctuation errors in the newspaper. Less than 70% of the facts in the newspaper are accurate. The newspaper’s formatting and organization of material are very confusing to the reader. The paper is missing the banner, articles are missing headlines OR many articles do not have adequate headlines OR many graphics do not have captions Date assignment is due: 00-00-00