Evolving to a New Dominant Logic
for Marketing
(Stephen L. Vargo & Robert F. Lusch)
Andang Fazri
PPIM UI - 1206314024
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Questions / Gaps
 Fragmented
thought,
pertanyaan-pertanyaan
tentang
masa
depan
marketing, tuntutan perubahan
paradigma, dan kontroversi
apakah
services
marketing
merupakan bidang studi lain di
luar marketing.
 Are these calls for alarm?
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Tujuan Penulisan
Menjelaskan evolusi marketing
thought
dari
awal
hingga
terbentuknya a new dominant
logic.
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A Summary of the Evolution
Over the Past 100 Years
Tabel 1. School of Thought &
Their Influence on Marketing
Theory and Practice
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Studi Marketing dari Masa ke Masa
 Fokus pada distribution and exchange
 Pendekatan
pengambilan
keputusan
dan
konsumen
 Service marketing
 Fokus pada network
 New dominant logic, fokus bergeser dari
pertukaran tangible goods ke pertukaran
intangible,
keahlian
dan
pengetahuan
khusus, serta proses.
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Fokus pada Distribusi dan Pertukaran
 Fokus pada distribusi dan pertukaran
komoditas dan produk manufaktur sebagai
fondasi ekonomi (Marshall 1890 reprinted
1927; Shaw 1912; Smith 1776 reprinted
1904).
 Mengarahkan
attention
menuju
commodities exchange (Copeland 1920).
 Institusi pemasar menyediakan barang dan
arrange for possession (Nystrom 1915;
Weld 1916).
 Fungsi yang harus dilaksanakan adalah
memfasilitasi pertukaran barang melalui
institusi marketing.
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Fokus pada Pendekatan Pengambilan
Keputusan dan Konsumen
 Awal 1950-an, functional school mulai
berubah menjadi marketing management
school dengan pendekatan decision-making
untuk mengelola marketing functions dan
fokus kepada kastemer (Drucker 1954;
Levitt 1960; McKitterick 1957)
 McCarthy
(1960)
dan
Kotler
(1967)
menggambarkan marketing sebagai sebuah
aktivitas decision-making untuk mencapai
profit melalui kepuasan kastemer, dengan
mentarget sebuah pasar dan kemudian
membuat keputusan marketing mix (4P)
yang optimal
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Fokus pada Pendekatan Pengambilan
Keputusan dan Konsumen (lanjutan)
 Marketing
management
berupaya
menemukan bauran variabel marketing
decision
bagi
perusahaan
yang
akan
memaksimalkan pencapaian perusahaan,
melalui expected behavior of uncontrollable
demand variables (Kotler 1972, p.42)
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Fokus pada Services
 Awal 1980-an, muncul paradigma standard
microeconomic baru, yang berada pada
separate lines of thought yaitu di dalam
relationship marketing, quality management,
market orientation, supply and value chain
management, resource management, dan
networks.
 Mungkin
yang
paling
populer
adalah
munculnya
service
marketing
sebagai
subdisiplin, menyusul keinginan para ahli
untuk “break free” (Shostack 1977).
 Dari product marketing dan disadarinya
kurangnya dominant logic berkaitan dengan
service marketing subject matter (Dixon
1990).
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Fokus pada Network / Relationship
 Disadarinya kekurangan 4P yang tidak dapat
menerangkan marketing sebagai kekuatan untuk
berinovasi atau beradaptasi.
 Day dan Montgomery (1999), “with growing
reservation about the validity or usefulness of
the Four P’s concept and its lack of recognition
of marketing as an innovating or adaptive force,
the Four P’s now are regarded as merely a handy
framework”.
 Sheth and Parvatiyar (2000, p. 140) suggested that
“an alternative paradigm of marketing is needed, a
paradigm that can account for the continuous nature
of relationships among marketing actors.”
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Fokus Marketing Bergeser dari Tangible
ke Intangible
 Dominant logic telah bergeser dari pertukaran
tangible
goods
ke
pertukaran
intangible
(specialized skills, knowledge and process) yang
mengintegrasi goods dengan services dan
menyediakan
fondasi
yang
kuat
bagi
perkembagngan marketing thought and practice.
 Rust (1998, p.107), menekankan pentingnya
integrasi goods and services: “The typical service
research article documented ways in which services
were different from goods.… It is time for a change.
Service research is not a niche field characterized by
arcane points of difference with the dominant goods
management field.”
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Fokus Marketing Bergeser dari Tangible
ke Intangible (lanjutan)
 The dominant, goods-centered view of marketing not
only may hinder a full appreciation for the role of
services but also may partially block a complete
understanding of marketing in general (see, e.g.,
Gronroos 1994; Kotler 1997; Normann and Ramirez
1993; Schlesinger and Heskett 1991).
 Customers do not buy goods or services: They buy
offerings which render services which create value.…
The traditional division between goods and services is
long outdated. It is not a matter of redefining services
and seeing them from a customer perspective;
activities render services, things render services. The
shift in focus to services is a shift from the means and
the producer perspective to the utilization and the
customer perspective.
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A Fundamental Shift of Worldview
 Figure 1. Eveloving to a New Dominant Logic
for marketing
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Resources
 Pada awanya yang dianggap resources terbatas
pada tangible resources.
 Malthus (1798) menyebut resources, mengacu
kepada natural resources.
 Kemudian pada 50 tahun terakhir, resources
juga mencakup intangible dan dynamic function
of human ingenuity (inventive skills or
imagination) dan appraisal.
 Perubahan pandangan inilah yang menyebabkan
pergeseran menuju new dominant logic.
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Operand Resources
 Constantin
dan
Lusch
(1994):
Operand
resources merupakan resources dimana sebuah
operasi atau tindakan dilakukan kepadanya to
produce
an
effect.
Sedangkan
operant
resources, adalah yang digunakan untuk
melakukan tindakan kepada operand resources
(dan operant resources lainnya).
 Goods-centered dominant logic terbentuk pada
saat resources utama adalah operand.
 Sebagai contoh: perusahaan memiliki faktor
produksi (umumnya operand) dan teknologi
(operant) yang memiliki kemampuan untuk
membantu perusahaan mengubah operand
menjadi output dengan biaya rendah.
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Operant Resources
 Adalah resources yang menghasilkan effects
(Constantin dan Lusch 1994)
 Muncul di akhir abad ke-20 ketika manusia
menyadari bahwa skills dan knowledge adalah
resources yang paling penting.
 Ahli ekonomi yang mempelopori perubahan
pandangan ini adalah Zimmermann (1951) dan
Penrose (1959).
 Hunt (2000, p.75): Penrose tidak menggunakan
istilah popoler “factor of production”, tapi dia
lebih suka menggunakan istilah “collection of
productive resources”.
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Operant Resources (lanjutan)
 Penrose (1959, p.24-25), “it is never resources
themselves that are the ‘input’, to the
production process, but only the services that
the resources can render”.
 Umumnya invisble dan intangible, dynamic dan
infinite.
 Seringkali merupakan core competence atau
organizational processes.
 Produce effects, memungkinkan manusia untuk
meningkatkan nilai natural resources dan
menciptakan operant resources lainnya. Contoh
populer operant resource adalah mikroprosesor
(ide, knowledge, operant).
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Operant Resources dan
Service-centered Dominant Logic
 Service-centered dominant logic menganggap
operant resources sebagai sumberdaya utama,
karena operant meruapakan producers of
effects.
 Perubahan resources utama ini berimplikasi
pada cara exchage processes, markets, persepsi
kastemer dan cara pendekatan kepada kastemer
 Seringkali merupakan core competence atau
organizational processes.
 Produce effects, memungkinkan manusia untuk
meningkatkan nilai natural resources dan
menciptakan operant resources lainnya. Contoh
populer operant resource adalah mikroprosesor
(ide, knowledge, operant).
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Goods Vs Services
Goods Versus Services: Rethinking the Orientation
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Goods-centered View
 Pandangan tradisional, marketing terfokus
terutama pada operand resources (primarily
goods) sebagai unit of exchange.
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Earliest Fragmentation
 Sebelum 1960, marketing dipandang sebagai
perpindahan kepemilikan barang dan distribusi
fisiknya (Savitt, 1990).
 Marketing dipandang sebagai “application of
motion to matter” (Shaw 1912, p.764).
 Literatur
marketing
jarang
menyebut
“immaterial products” atau “services” dan
ketika itu disebut, hanya sebagai pelengkap
“membantu produksi atau pemasaran barang”
(Converse 1921, p.vi: see Fisk, Brown, and
Bitner 1993).
 Fragmentasi berawal ketika Shostack (1977,
p.73) menekankan. “The classical ‘marketing mix,’ the
seminal literature, and the language of marketing all derive
from the manufacture of physical-goods.”
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Dissatisfaction Led to Services
 Ketidakpuasan terhadap tidak dilibatkannya
services didukung oleh Shaw (1912), Weld
(1916).
 Meskipun sebenarnya juga ada perbedaan sudut
pandang terhadap utilitas dan value seperti
Beckman (1957) dan Alderson (1957).
 Dixon (1990), “tiap penulis (Bekman dan
Alderson) menggunakan konsep yang berbeda
tentang
value.
Beckman
berargumen
berdasarkan
konsep
value-in-exchange
berdasarkan perhitungannya terhadap valueadded pada produk ‘selling value’. Sedangkan
Alderson berargumen berdasarkan value-in-use.
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Dissatisfaction Led to Services (lanjutan)
 Berdasarkan pendapat Cox (1965), Dixon
(1990, p.342) meyakini bahwa, The “conventional
view” of marketing as adding properties to matter caused a
problem for Alderson and “makes more difficult a
disinterested evaluation of what marketing is and does” (Cox
1965). This view also underlies the dissatisfaction with
marketing theory that led to the services marketing literature.
If marketing is the process that adds properties to matter,
then it can not contribute to the production of “immaterial
goods.”
 Alderson (1957, p.69): yang dibutuhkan bukan
interpretasi utilitas yang dibuat oleh marketing,
namun interpretasi marketing terhadap seluruh
proses penciptaan utilitas.
 Dixon (1990, p.342) mendukung pendapat di
atas.
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Service-centered View
 Memandang marketing sebagai proses sosial
dan ekonomi berkesinambungan yang terfokus
kepada operant resources yang digunakan
perusahaan untuk secara terus menerus
menciptakan tawaran pasar yang lebih unggul
dibandingkan pesaing.
 Perusahaan
mempelajari
posisi
tawaran
pasarnya dari feedback yang diberikan pasar
yang tergambar pada kinerja keuangan.
 Perusahaan
dapat
mempelajarinya
dan
membuat tawaran berikutnya yang lebih baik.
 oleh
karena
itu
service-centered
view
menganggap marketing sebagai continous
learning process (directed at improving operant
resources).
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Service-centered View (lanjutan)
 Pandangan ini didasari dan konsisten dengan
teori Resource Advantage (Conner & Prahalad
1996; Hunt 2000; Srivastava, Fahey &
Christensen 2001) dan core competence theory
(Day 1994; Prahalad & Hamel 1990).
 Core competences bukan aset fisik, namun
merupakan intangible processes; merupakan
kesatuan skills dan teknologi (Hamel &
Prahalad 1994, p.202)
 Core competences sering berupa kegiatan rutin,
tindakan, atau operasi yang tidak diungkapkan
(tacit), menyebabkan ambigu, dan idiosyncratic
(unusual individual reaction), Nelson and
Winter 1982; Polanyi 1966.
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Service-centered View (lanjutan)
 Pandangan yang menganggap core competence
sebagai operant resource didukung oleh: Hunt
(2000): as a higher-order resource karena
merupakan kumpulan resources dasar; Teece
dan Pisano (1994): keunggulan bersaing lahir
dari kemampuan dinamis yang mengakar pada
kinerja operasional rutin di dalam perusahaan,
tertanam dalam proses yang dilakukan, dan
dibentuk oleh sejarah perusahaan tersebut.
 Fokus
marketing
pada
core
competence
menempatkan sebagai pusat integrasi fungsi
bisnis dan disiplin ilmu.
 Channel intermediaries dan network partners
juga merupakan core competence.
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Perubahan Strategi
 Service-centerd view pada pemasaran adalah
customer-centric (Sheth, Sisodia & Sharma
2000), dan market driven (Day 1999).
 Lebih dari sekedar consumer oriented, namun
merupakan kolaborasi dengan dan belajar dari
kastemer dan adaptive terhadap kebutuhan
individu dan dinamis mereka.
 Bahwa value ditentukan oleh dan cocreated
bersama konsumen.
 Haeckel (1999) boserved bahwa perusahaan
yang sukses berubah dari strategi “make-andsell” ke strategi “sense-and-respond”.
 Day (1999).”...firms are in a process of
continual hypothesis generation and testing”
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6 Perbedaan Goods- dan
Service-centered View
 Tabel 2.
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8 Foundational Premises (FPs) Help
Present the Patchwork of
the Emerging Dominant Logic
1. The application of specialized skills and
Knowledge is the fundamental unit of exchange
2. Indirect exchange masks the fundamental unit
of exchang
3. Goods are distribution mechanism for service
provision
4. Knowledge is the fundamental source of
competitive advntage
5. All economies are service economies
6. The customer is always a coproducer
7. The enterprise can only make value proposition
8. A service-centered view is customer oriented
and relational.
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1. The application of specialized skills
And knowledge is the fundamental unit
of exchange.
 Manusia memiliki 2 operant resources dasar
yaitu physical dan mental skills, dimana skill
setiap orang tidak sama.
 Maka dari itu dibutuhkan spesialisasi keahlian,
yang
lebih
efisien
bagi
individu
dan
lingkungannya.
 Hal ini ditunjukkan oleh studi Macneil (1980);
Smith (1904); Mauss (1990).
 Frederic Bastiat (1860) merupakan salah satu
ekonom pertama yang menolak bahwa value
hanya terkait dengan tangible objek. Dia
berpendapat, the foundations of economics were people
who have “wants” and who seek “satisfactions.” Although a
want and its satisfaction are specific to each person, the
effort required is often provided by others.
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1. The application of specialized (lanjutan)
 Kemudian Bastiat (1860) mengemukakan, “the
great economic law is this: Services are exchanged for
services…. It is trivial, very commonplace; it is, nonetheless,
the beginning, the middle, and the end of economic science.”
He argued (1860, p. 43) the following: “[I]t is in fact to this
faculty … to work the one for the other; it is this transmission
of efforts, this exchange of services [this emphasis added],
with all the infinite and involved combinations to which it
gives rise …which constitutes Economic Science, points out
its origin, and determines its limits.”
 Namun pendapat Bastiat diabaikan dengan
berkembangnya value yang sebagai embedded
utility
or
value
added
seperti
yang
dikemukakan Marshall (1927) dan Walras
(1954)
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1. The application of specialized (lanjutan)
 Shostack (1977) argue for a “new conceptual
framework,“One unorthodox possibility can be drawn
from direct observation of the nature of market “satisfiers”
available to it.… How should the automobile be defined? Is
General Motors marketing a service, a service that happens
to include a by-product called a car? Levitt’s classic
“Marketing Myopia” exhorts businessmen to think exactly this
generic way about what they market. Are automobiles
“tangible services”?
 Penulis
meyakini
bahwa
service-centered
model yang muncul saat ini sesuai dengan
Shostack’s challenge, sejalan dengan argumen
Alderson, dan cocok dengan desakan Levitt
(1960).
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2. Indirect exchange masks
the fundamental unit of exchange
 Peningkatan
skala
usaha,
mengakibatkan
diperlukannya mikro-spesialis, dimana orangorang tidak menghasilkan barang jadi, hanya
merupakan bagian dari produk akhir, sehingga
pembuat produk sesungguhnya tidak pernah
bertemu dengan customer.
 Perusahaan
pun
demikian,
produsen
menggunakan jasa wholesaler dan retailer
untuk memasarkan produk.
 Dalam perusahaan seperti ini orang-orang
exchange and distribute mikrospesialis skillnya.
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3. Goods are distribution mechanism
for service provision
 Marketing telah bergeser dari distribusi dan
saat ini menekankan lebih dari hanya sekedar
pertukaran barang.
 Produk
utama
saat
ini
adalah
aplikasi
specialized knowledge, mental skills dan
physical skills.
 Knowledge dan skills dapat ditransfer dengan
cara: 1) langsung, 2) melalui pendidikan dan
latihan, atau 3) secara tidak langsung dengan
menanamkannya di dalam suatu objek.
 Komputer
membantu
pekerjaan
manusia,
vacuum cleaner mempermudah membersihkan
rumah, dsb.
 Gutman (1982) Goods merupakan alat untuk
menyampaikan services.
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4. Knowledge is the fundamental source
of competitive advantage
 Knowledge is composed of propositional knowledge, which is
often referred to as abstract and generalized, and prescriptive
knowledge, which is often referred to as techniques (Mokyr
2002)
 The techniques are the skills and competences that entities
use to gain competitive advantage. This view is consistent
with current economic thought that the change in a firm’s
productivity is primarily dependent on knowledge or
technology (Capon and Glazer 1987; Nelson, Peck, and
Kalachek 1967)
 The use of knowledge as the basis for competitive advantage
can be extended to the entire “supply” chain, or serviceprovision chain.
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4. Knowledge is the fundamental source
of competitive advantage
 Evans and Wurster (1997, p.72) state this idea as follows:
“The value chain also includes all the information that flows
within a company and between a company and its suppliers,
its distributors, and its existing or potential customers.
Supplier relationships, brand identity, process coordination,
customer loyalty, employee loyalty, and switching costs all
depend on various kinds of information.” Evans and Wurster
suggest that every business is an information business.
 The move toward a service-dominant logic is grounded in an
increased focus on operant resources and specifically on
process management. Webster (1992) and Day (1994)
emphasize the importance of marketing being central to
cross-functional business processes. To better manage the
processes, Moorman and Rust (1999) suggest that firms are
shifting away from a functional marketing organization and
toward a marketing process organization.
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4. Knowledge is the fundamental source
of competitive advantage
 Taking this even further, Srivastava, Shervani, and Fahey
(1999, p. 168) contend that the enterprise consists of three
core business processes: (1) product development
management, (2) supply chain management, and (3)
customer relationship management.
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5. All economies are service economies
 Batasan goods dan services menjadi tidak jelas.
 The US Government melalui the Economic
Classification Policy Committee pada Biro
Analisis Ekonomi (1994) mengeluarkan aturan
sebagai berikut: [O]ne in the same activity, such as
painting, may be classified as goods or service production
depending purely on the organization of the overall process
of production... If the painting is done by employees within
the producer unit [that] makes the good, it will be treated as
[part of] the goods production, whereas if it is done by an
outside painting company, it will be classified as an
intermediate input of services. Thus, when a service
previously performed in a manufacturing establishment is
contracted out, to a specialized services firm, data will show
an increase in services production in the economy even
though the total activity of “painting,” may be unchanged.
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5. All economies are service economies
 Services menjadi sangat penting saat ini,
menjadi penting pada lingkungan ekonomi yang
membutuhkan spesialisasi dan exchange sesuai
dengan sistem klasifikasi output manufaktur
yng dominan pada aktivitas ekonomi saat ini.
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6. The Customer is always a coproducer
 From a service-centered view of marketing with a heavy focus
on continuous processes, the consumer is always involved in
the production of value.
 Even with tangible goods, production does not end with the
manufacturing process; production is an intermediary
process. As we have noted, goods are appliances that provide
services for and in conjunction with the consumer.
 However, for these services to be delivered, the customer still
must learn to use, maintain, repair, and adapt the appliance to
his or her unique needs, usage situation, and behaviors. In
summary, in using a product, the customer is continuing the
marketing, consumption, and value-creation and delivery
processes.
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6. The Customer is always a coproducer
 Normann and Ramirez (1993, p. 69) state that “the key to
creating value is to coproduce offerings that mobilize
customers.” Lusch, Brown, and Brunswick (1992) provide a
general model to explain how much of the coproduction or
service provision the customer will perform.
 Oliver, Rust, and Varki (1998) echo and extend the idea of
coproduction in their suggestion that marketing is headed
toward a paradigm of “real-time” marketing, which integrates
mass customization and relationship marketing by
interactively designing evolving offerings that meet customers’
unique, changing needs.
 Prahalad and Ramaswamy (2000) note that the market has
become a venue for proactive customer involvement, and
they argue for co-opting customer involvement in the valuecreation process.
 In summary, the customer becomes primarily an operant
resource (coproducer) rather than an operand resource
(“target”) and can be Powerpoint
involved inTemplates
the entire value and service
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chain in acting on operand resources.
7. The enterprise can only make value preposition
 Services marketing scholars have been forced both to
reevaluate the idea of value being embedded in tangible
goods and to redefine the value-creation process.
 As with much of the reexamination and redefinition that has
originated in the services marketing literature, the
implications can be extended to all of marketing. For
example, Gummesson (1998, p. 247) has argued that “if the
consumer is the focal point of marketing, value creation is
only possible when a good or service is consumed. An
unsold good has no value, and a service provider without
customers cannot produce anything.”
 Likewise, Gronroos (2000, pp. 24–25; emphasis in original)
states,
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7. The enterprise can only make value preposition
Value for customers is created throughout the relationship by the
customer, partly in interactions between the customer and the
supplier or service provider. The focus is not on products but on
the customers’ value-creating processes where value emerges
for customers and is perceived by them,… the focus of marketing
is value creation rather than value distribution, and facilitation
and support of a value-creating process rather than simply
distributing ready-made value to customers.
Penulis mendukung pendapat tersebut dan mengatakan bahwa
prusahaan hanya dapat mengajukan tawaran nilai dimana
perusahaan berusaha agar tawaran tersebut lebih unggul
daripada tawaran pesaing.
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8. A service-centered view is customer oriented
dan relational
 Interactivity, integration, customization, and coproduction are
the hallmarks of a service-centered view and its inherent
focus on the customer and the relationship.
 Davis and Manrodt (1996, p. 6) approach a service-centered
view in their discussion of the customer-interaction process:
“It begins with the interactive definition of the individual
customers’ problem, the development of a customized
solution, and delivery of that customized solution to the
customer. The solution may consist of a tangible product, an
intangible service, or some combination of both. It is not the
mix of the solution (be it product or service) that is important,
but that the organization interacts with each customer to
define the specific need and then develops a solution to meet
the need.
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8. A service-centered view is customer oriented
dan relational
 Barabba (1995, p. 14) extends the customer-centric idea to
the “integration of the voice of the market with the voice of
the enterprise,” and Gummesson (2002) suggests the term
“balanced centricity,” concepts that may be particularly
compatible
with
a
services-for-services
exchange
perspective.
 writers also suggest that the interactive and integrative view
of exchange is more compatible with the other normative
elements of the marketing concept, the idea that all activities
of the firm be integrated in their market responsiveness and
the idea that profits come from customer satisfaction (rather
than units of goods sold) (Kohli and Jaworski 1990; Narver
and Slater 1990).
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8. A service-centered view is customer oriented
dan relational
 In a service-centered model, humans both are at the center
and are active participants in the exchange process.
 What precedes and what follows the transaction as the firm
engages in a relationship (short- or long-term) with
customers is more important than the transaction itself.
Because a service-centered view is participatory and
dynamic, service provision is maximized through an iterative
learning process on the part of both the enterprise and the
consumer.
 The view necessarily assumes the existence of emergent
relationships and evolving structure (e.g., relational norms of
exchange learned through reinforcement over time; see
Heide and John 1992). The service-centered view is
inherently both consumer-centric and relational.
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Discussion
 Service-centered view challenges marketing to become more
than a functional area and to represent one of the firm’s core
competences;
 it challenges marketing to become the predominant
organizational philosophy and to take the lead in initiating
and coordinating a market-driven perspective for all core
competences.
 As Srivastava, Shervani, and Fahey (1999) suggest,
marketing must play a critical role in ensuring that product
development management, supply chain management, and
customer relationship management processes are all
customer-centric and market driven.
 If firms focus on their core competences, they must establish
resource networks and outsource necessary knowledge and
skills to the network.
 This means that firms must learn to be simultaneously
competitive and collaborative (Day 1994), and they must
learn to manage their network relationships.
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Conclusion
 Fokus marketing telah berubah dari tangibles ke intangibles
seperti skills, informasi, dan knowledge, dan menuju
interactivity dan connectivity dan ongoing relationship
 Orientasi bergeser dari produser ke konsumer
 Fokus akademik berubah dari pertukaran benda ke proses
pertukaran
 Ifokus science berubah dari mekanik ke dinamik,
evolutionary development, dan munculnya sistem adaptasi
yang kompleks.
 Unit of exchange yang sesuai saat ini mungkin adalah
aplikasi kompetensi, atau spesialisasi knowledge dan skills
yang memberikan benefit kepada penerima.
 Operant resource di atas intangible, continuous dan dinamik.
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