HABIT INTERFERNENCE LEARNING Learning, in psychology, the process by which a relatively lasting change in potential behaviour occurs because of practice or experience. Learning is also a process of acquiring modifications in existing knowledge, skills, habits, or tendencies through experience, practice, or exercise. Henry, P smith “Learning is the acquisition of new behaviour or strengthening or weakening of old behaviour as a result of experience.” Skinner “Learning is the process of progressive behaviour adaptation.” LAW OF LEARNING LAW OF READINESS According to the law of readiness, learning occurs when a person is cognitively and physically prepared (or "ready") to accept stimuli. People learn best when they are ready to learn, and if they do not perceive a cause to learn, they will not learn much. LAW OF EXERCISE The rule of exercise emphasises that repetition is essential for the formation of appropriate responses and that what is repeated most frequently is the simplest to recall. After only one exposure, the mind is rarely able to retain new ideas or techniques, but every time they are used, learning is reinforced. LAW OF EFFECT This law relates to the learner's emotional response and states that learning is strengthened when it is accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling and that it is weakened when it is connected to an unpleasant experience. Learning will always be much more effective when a lfeeling of satisfaction, pleasantness, or reward accompanies or results from the learning process. LAW OF PRIMACY Things that are initially taught leave a lasting effect. Teachings must be accurate the first time around. It is more difficult to "unlearn" bad first impressions than to teach good ones from the start. Procedure-correct learning must be implemented the first time by the pupil. Things that are initially taught leave a lasting effect. LAW OF INTENSITY According to the intensity principle, a change in behaviour (learning) is more likely to occur if the stimulus (experience) is real. Learning experiences that are vivid, dramatic, or thrilling impart more knowledge than those that are monotonous or dull. LAW OF RECENCY It is easiest to recall information that has just been taught, whereas it is more challenging to recall information that has been learned in the past. For instance, recalling a phone number from only a few minutes ago can be tricky, but remembering one from a week ago is typically impossible. Warm-ups, reviews, and similar exercises all operate under the premise that the more recent the activity, the more potent the result. Just before employing a skill or new notion, practise it to maximise performance. LAW OF FREEDOM According to the freedom principle, knowledge is best acquired through free choice. On the other hand, the harder it is for the audience to learn something if they are made to. Force and coercion are not conducive to personal development. TYPES OF LEARNING CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Classical conditioning, discovered by Pavlov while studying dogs' digestion, explains how dogs' physical reactions to food change over time. They initially salivate when food is placed in front of them, but later salivate slightly before food arrives. Pavlov introduced the concept of a conditioned stimulus, which can trigger a conditioned response. In Pavlov's experiment, the dogs salivated at the sound of a bell, indicating the arrival of food. The neutral stimulus became the conditioned stimulus, and the unconditioned response was triggered by food, while the conditioned response was triggered by the bell. 1. Acquisition: The first phase of learning is called acquisition, during which a response is first developed and then progressively strengthened.5 A neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus are repeatedly paired throughout the acquisition phase of classical conditioning. 2. Extinction: Extinction occurs when a conditioned reaction stops happening or becomes extinct. When a conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus, this occurs in classical conditioning. 3. Generalization: The potential for a conditioned stimulus to elicit comparable reactions after the response has been conditioned is known as stimulus generalisation. An animal may react similarly to a sound that is similar to the bell, for instance, if it has been trained to salivate in response to the sound of a bell. 4. Discrimination: Being able to distinguish between stimuli that haven't been coupled with an unconditioned response and other stimuli is referred to as discrimination. 5. Spontaneous Recovery: Even after a period of extinction, a learnt reaction can occasionally appear out of nowhere. We refer to this as spontaneous recovery. OPERANT CONDITIONING B.F. Skinner's theory on operant conditioning was tested using the Skinner Box. He placed a hungry rat inside the box, and as it adapted, it explored. When it found a lever, food was released, and it continued exploring. This process continued until the rat pressed the lever, completing the conditioning. This experiment, also known as Instrumental Conditioning Learning, demonstrates the importance of operant responses in obtaining food. PRINCIPLES OF OPERANT CONDITIONING 1. Positive Reinforcement: Positive reinforcers are positive events or outcomes that strengthen a behaviour, such as praise or direct rewards, such as a bonus given by a manager. 2. Negative Reinforcement: Negative reinforcers involve the removal of unpleasant events or outcomes after a behaviour, strengthening the response. For example, a child's scream stops after receiving a treat, not the child's. 3. Positive Punishment: Positive punishment, also known as punishment by application, involves presenting an unfavourable outcome to weaken the subsequent response, such as strafing for misbehaviour. 4. Negative Punishment: Negative punishment, also known as removal, involves removing a positive outcome or behaviour after a misbehaviour, such as a child's video game. LATENT LEARNING Latent learning is a theory that suggests a new behaviour is learned but not demonstrated until reinforcement is provided. Tolman's early contribution to this concept was demonstrated in an experiment where rats were placed in a maze. In one group, they found food and quickly learned to navigate, while in the other group, they showed no signs of learning. When reinforced, the unrewarded rats showed the same efficiency as the rewarded group. Tolman argued that unrewarded rats developed a cognitive map of the maze to reach their goal. INSIGHT LEARNING Kohler's experiments with chimpanzees demonstrated a unique learning model that cannot be explained by conditioning. In an enclosed play area, he placed chimpanzees with tools like poles and boxes, and they rapidly learned to use them to solve complex problems. This learning process, known as insight learning, was not a result of trial and error but rather sudden flashes of insight. In this model, the solution to a problem becomes clear immediately, and it can be repeated the next time the problem is confronted. This suggests that learning is not a set of conditioned associations between stimuli and responses but a cognitive relationship between means and ends, making it applicable to other similar problem situations. SOCIAL LEARNING Bandura's experimental study involved showing a five-minute film to children, showing a grown-up boy aggressively hitting a 'Bobo' doll. The film had three versions: one showed the boy being rewarded, another showed him being punished, and the third was not shown either. After viewing the film, all three groups were placed in an experimental room with similar toys. Their behaviours were secretly observed. The results showed that children who saw the aggressive behaviour being rewarded were more aggressive, while those who saw the aggressive model being punished were least aggressive. This suggests that observational learning involves learning by observing the model's behaviour, but performance is influenced by the model's reward or punishment. TRANSFER OF TRAINING It is common belief that training in one subject is transferred to another subject. If we study mathematics, the logical reasoning developed in solving complex mathematical problems is so developed that it is utilised in another situation. It is again generally said that study of science develops scientific spirit, the teaching of grammar develops discipline of mind, music develops aesthetic sense and cricket develops sportsmanship in every walk of life. Skinner: “Transfer of training is concerned with the question of whether or not the learning of material A-say Mathematics – aids, hinders, or does not affect the subsequent learning of material B – say Physics or Chemistry. W.B. Kolesnik: “Transfer is the application of carry over the knowledge’s, skills, habits, attitudes or other responses from the situation in which they are initially acquired to some other situation.” Types of Transfer: On the basis of magnitude or quality, it is of three types-positive, zero and negative. Positive Transfer: In this case, the past learning of one subject or activity facilitates the learning of another subject or activity. A sportsman playing football plays volley-ball as nicely. A bus-driver can drive a truck also equally efficiently. Zero Transfer: In this case, the learning of one subject does help the learning of another. There may be zero transfer between language and mathematics. Negative Transfer: Herein learning of one task makes the learning of a second task harder. Learning shorthand by Danton method may cause interference in subsequent learning by Pitman method. The negative transfer is also called habit interferences. One form of positive transfer is bilateral transfer or cross-transfer. Practice in using right hand while handling a machine in the factory may help handling by the left hand. The teacher should be aware that when the new and the old are unconnected, learning transfer will not occur. Therefore, rather than teaching by rote, the teacher should try to convey their subject-matter in a more meaningful and detailed approach. The teacher must constantly emphasise the connections between different topic areas in order for learning to transfer. In order to persuade pupils to enjoy a learning task rather than avoid it, the teacher should work to foster positive attitudes towards that task.
