WARM UP AND COOL DOWN
Devise a warm up and a cool down for an activity of your choice. Follow the
models:
Warm Up: 3 Phases
• Pulse raiser
• Mobility – controlled joint movements which rehearse movement patterns
• Stretches
Now explain the impact this will have on the Cardio Respiratory Systems and the
Musculo - Skeletal Systems. Think about: muscle temp / O2 Dissociation / Nerve
Impulse Conduction and Contraction / Muscle Force, speed and reactions / Synovial
Fluid / Elasticity of Muscles / Distribution of Blood (Vascular Shunt) / Enzyme
Activity for cell Respiration
Cool Down: 2 Phases
• Active Recovery / Pulse Lowering
• Stretch Active Muscles
Now explain the benefits of this to; Q (Cardiac Output), Venous Return (VR),
Stroke Volume (SV), Minute Ventilation (VE), Blood Pressure, Muscle
Temperature, Length of Muscles, DOMS risk, Removal of Lactic Acid, Blood
Pooling
STRENGTH
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Strength …….. is the application of a force against a resistance.
There are 5 different types:
Maximum Strength is the maximum force a neuro muscular system can exert in a
single voluntary muscle contraction. It is the maximal weight an individual can
lift once = The 1 Rep Max or 1RM (repetition maximum)
Static Strength is the force exerted by the neuro muscular system whilst the
muscle length remains static or in the same position. Isometric
Explosive or Elastic Strength is the ability to expand a maximal amount of
energy in one, OR a series of strong, sudden high intensity movements ….. OR
apply a successive and equal force rapidly. It is similar to Power but it uses the
ATP/PC system. It is higher intensity and shorter duration than Dynamic
Strength. This normally uses the Lactic Acid System. It uses the Stretch Reflex –
a recoil effect when you work a muscle eccentrically before using it concentrically.
This adds extra force
Dynamic Strength is the ability of the neuro muscular system to overcome a
resistance with a high contraction speed. It is a measure of Anaerobic Capacity. It
uses the lactic acid system. Strength (force x distance) X Speed (divided by time)
Strength Endurance is the ability of a muscle to withstand or sustain repeated
muscle contractions or a single static action. Linked with Aerobic Capacity as it
uses O2. You can have Whole Body Endurance OR Local Muscular Endurance
RPE – Rating of Perceived Exertion - The Borg Scale
There are a number of RPE scales but the most common are the 15 point scale (6-20), and the 9 point scale (1-10).
15 Point Scale
6 - 20% effort
7 - 30% effort - Very, very light (Rest)
8 - 40% effort
9 - 50% effort - Very light - gentle walking
10 - 55% effort
11 - 60% effort - Fairly light
12 - 65% effort
13 - 70% effort - Somewhat hard - steady pace
14 - 75% effort
15 - 80% effort - Hard
16 - 85% effort
17 - 90% effort - Very hard
18 - 95% effort
19 - 100% effort - Very, very hard
20 - Exhaustion
10 Point Scale
0 - Nothing at all
1 - Very light
2 - Fairly light
3 - Moderate
4 - Some what hard
5 - Hard
6
7 - Very hard
8
9
10 - Very, very hard
STRENGTH TRAINING GUIDELINES
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Resistance must be at least 50% of 1RM. Excess of 80% of 1RM is
risky
Low Rep + High Resistance = Maximum Strength Training
High Rep + Low Resistance = Endurance Training
Moderate Resistance trains Power
General Strength MUST be achieved before focusing on Specific areas.
Exercise large muscle groups before small
Use PERIODISATION of Training to Vary the Volume and Intensity
Allow appropriate recovery between sets and between sessions
Specificity: If you train with slow joint movements you will increase
strength at slow speeds .. BUT .. If you train with fast joint movements
you will increase strength in both slow and fast movements.
Using Paula Radcliffe (Aerobic Athlete) and Usain Bolt (Anaerobic
Athlete) as examples, explain how these guidelines would be applied
in practice. Work in pairs. Be ready to feedback to the other group.
10 minutes!
STRENGTH TRAINING GUIDELINES
CIRCUIT TRAINING
AEROBIC ATHLETE
ANAEROBIC ATHLETE
Interval Duration (Time Range)
3-5 mins to 20 mins +
0-90 secs (shorter)
Low/Moderate –50-70%
speed
High – 70-85% speed
Low 1:1 jog/walk/jog
High: 60 secs to 3 mins
=1:3+
Ratio of Work Relief (reps per
station in circuit)
3-4 circuits : more reps per
stations
3-5 circuits : fewer reps per
station
Frequency (sessions per week)
3 – 5 per week
3-7 per week. 48 hrs
between muscle groups
Specificity (which energy system)
Aerobic Energy System
ATP/PC and Lactic Acid
System
RESISTANCE TRAINING
AEROBIC ATHLETE
ANAEROBIC ATHLETE
10 – 20 Reps +
1 – 10 Reps maximum
Low to Moderate. 50-70%
1RM
High. 70 - 95% 1RM
Low. 30 – 60 seconds
High & Full. 2 - 5 minutes
Few. 3 – 5 sets of 10+ reps
More. 3-6 sets of 1- 10 reps
Interval Intensity
Interval Relief (Rest or
Recovery)
Duration (Reps)
Intensity (Weight and % of RM)
Recovery (Time / How Full
Recovery)
No. of Sets (Work:Relief)
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STRENGTH TRAINING METHODS
MULTI GYM is a series of specialised exercise machines. They are
RESISTANT EXERCISES with adjustable weight stacks. Each machine
targets specific muscles. FREE WEIGHTS are non mechanised weights
which are free standing. They often require SPOTTERS who support.
They recruit FIXATOR muscles to support and work ISOMETRICALLY.
Sometimes athletes use SUPER SETS. These are sets which work
ANTAGONISTIC muscles without rest. And therefore maintain a high
HEART RATE. They are good for ALIGNMENT and POSTURE.
PLYOMETRIC TRAINING is when an ECCENTRIC contraction is quickly
followed by a CONCENTRIC contraction. It includes jumps, bounds and it
builds POWER. It is based on the STRETCH REFLEX which is a
protective reflex where the muscle contracts concentrically in response to
being overstretched particularly at high speeds. When the CONCENTRIC
contraction is added to the ECCENTRIC contraction which precedes it, the
recoil force adds to the overall power. The STRETCH REFLEX recruits
more MOTOR UNITS (Motor Neurones/Nerve Transmitters) which pre
loads the elastic properties of a muscle fibre which in turn increase
FORCE. Plyometrics are at the top of the STRENGTH PYRAMID but do
carry the risk of injury and DOMS. They require base fitness levels
STRENGTH TRAINING METHODS
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CIRCUIT / INTERVAL TRAINING uses a series of exercises called STATIONS
that form a circuit that can be repeated (REPETITIONS) in SETS. Body Weight
can act as a resistance. You can alternate stations between muscle groups to allow
recovery (AEROBIC) or put them together to create STAGE TRAINING to
increase LACTATE THRESHOLD
STRENGTH TRAINING METHODS
Critically Evaluate each Method of Strength Training. Consider the
following:
Targeted Muscle Groups and Synergists
Fixator Muscles – Isometric contractions
Maximum or Specific Strength Development or General Strength Development
Joint Movement Patterns – Specific or General
Energy Systems
Development of Balance
Recruitment of the Core
Experienced or Inexperienced Athletes
Body Alignment
Increasing Heart Rate
Aerobic Adaptations
Development of Power and Explosive Strength
Risk of DOMS (Delayed Onset of Muscle Soreness)
4 Different Circuits – 1) Interval Intensity (hard) 2) Interval Duration (long)
3) Relief Duration (long rest) 4) Number of Work / Relief Intervals
THE 6 FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH
1) MUSCLE COMPOSITION… Applying Force depends on 3 types of
composition:
a) The Percentage of Fast Twitch Muscle Fibres
b) The Area of a Muscle’s Cross Section
c) Muscle Size
2) GENDER.. There is little difference in actual muscle strength .. BUT ..
Women have less size, cross section area, and muscle mass .. And less
TESTOSTERONE .. which can mean less strength
3) AGE- Female Strength Peak=Ages: 16 – 25 Male Strength Peak =
Ages:18 – 30 Testosterone levels peak between 20 and 30 in both sexes
which is when greatest strength gains are made. After 30 testosterone
decreases leading to less mass and less efficient neuro-muscular system ..
therefore less potential
4) PHYSICAL INACTIVITY.. Atrophy occurs
in muscles after 48 hours of inactivity. Reversibility begins at this time
5) STRENGTH TRAINING… This causes Hypertrophy in specific training
areas
6)THE WEAKEST POINT IN A RANGE OF MOTION…… or
a Movements Range .. This is specific to the angle of a joint
1) NEURAL ADAPTATIONS –Occur 0 - 2 Weeks+ then PLATEAU
• Increased Fast Twitch muscle FIBRE
• Increased recruitment of MOTOR UNITS
• Improved COORDINATION of Motor Units
• Reduced inhibition of Antagonist Muscles STRETCH REFLEX
2) PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS – Occur 2 to 3 Weeks + then PLATEAU
• HYPERTROPHY (increase in fast twitch fibres) and HYPERPLASIA
(increase in number of Fibres)
• Increased CONTRACTILE PROTEIN
• Increased MYSOSIN/ACTIN CROSS BRIDGES
3) METABOLIC ADAPTATIONS - 2 to 3 Weeks then PLATEAU
• Increased ATP PC and GLYCOGEN stores
• Increased LACTATE THRESHOLD (buffering capacity) and removal of
LA
• Increase GLYCOLITIC ENZYME actions
• Increased ANAEROBIC THRESHOLD and RECOVERY of ATP/PC
• Increased Performance Intensity/ Duration and delay of OBLA
CV ADAPTATIONS TO STRENGTH TRAINING
PURE STRENGTH TRAINING
ENDURANCE STRENGTH
TRAINING
Heart Hypertrophy
Increase
Increase
Resting Blood Pressure
Increase
Decrease
Slight Increase
Increase
Volume of the Left
Ventricle
Decrease
Slight Increase
Stroke Volume
Decrease
Increase
This is Limited
Increase
Increase
Same
Blood Flow through
Arteries during weights
session
Obstructed because of
Powerful Muscle Contractions
Increase
The Distance and Speed to
allow O2 / C02 Diffusion
Increased because of larger
heart muscle fibres - Negative
Same
Number of Mitochondria
(Cell Oxygen ‘Factories’)
Same
Increase
STRUCTURE
Capillary Density
Metabolic Function / Rate
Muscle Mass
(Hypertrophy)
• BODY COMPOSITION is the chemical make up of the body. There are 2
components. 1) FAT MASS (the percentage of body weight stored as fat in
ADIPOSE TISSUE) and 2) LEAN BODY MASS (weight of rest of the body)
• 2 people may be the same weight but their composition may vary significantly
• The ideal size for athletes depend on the event and also their position .
Standard weight charts are not accurate as they don’t account for composition.
Additional weight if it is lean muscle is not normally an issue as it can
enhance performance. Muscle weighs 3 times more than fat.
• HYDROSTATIC WIGHING: Athlete is weighed in a water tank. The difference
between their scale weight and their immersed weight calculates the body fat.
It is widely accepted as the most accurate. YouTube - Hydrostatic weighing
• BIOELECTRICAL IMPEDENCE SPECTROSCOPY (BIS): This is Body Fat
Scales which send a low electrical impulse through the body. When the impulse
meets resistance (Bioelectrical Impedence) of Fat Tissue. Must be measured
against height and weight. Accurate but relies on hydrated athletes and uses
generic average population calculations. Not accurate for elite athletes
• SKINFOLD CALLIPERS: Accurate, practical, and accessible. 4 sites mainly
Tricep, Bicep, Subscapula and Superiliac. Measured in mm put in a formula.
The first 2 folds are diagonal and the others are vertical YouTube - Skin Fold
Caliper Testing
• BODY MASS INDEX (BMI) is calculated by your body weight (KGs) divided
by your height (metres squared). It is currently used by the government to
measure weight and obesity BUT it doesn’t measure Body Composition
• The acceptable range is 20.1 – 25.0 for men and 18.5 to 23.8 for women. This
varies between organisations and countries. It is a RISK MEASUREMENT
method!
• It does not measure Fat Mass but it is related to Body Composition and more
ACCURATE than simple height weight charts. It is not suitable however for
people such as infants, pregnant women, OAPs and ATHLETES who can have
higher than normal MUSCLE MASS. EG: Elite rugby players would be
classified as obese but have an acceptable body fat percentage
• For a 90KG athlete who is 1.75m tall.
Height squared = 1.75 x 1.75 = 3.06m²
Weight divided by = 90 Kg
= 29.4 BMI
Height Squared
3.06 m²
• OVERWEIGHT is when body weight exceeds the normal standard weight
based on height/frame size or having a BMI between 25.0 and 29.9
• OBESITY is having a very high amount of body fat. 20 – 25 % for men and 30
– 35 % in women or having a BMI over 30
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BASAL METABOLIC RATE
Basal Metabolic Rate is the body’s lowest RATE OF ENERGY
EXPENDITURE to sustain the body’s essential PHYSIOLOGICAL
FUNCTIONS whilst at REST (after 8 hours sleep and 12 hours fasting). The
term RESTING Metabolic Rate (RMR) is often used. Daily expenditure of
RMR is 60-75%, of physical activity is 20-30% and of the THERMIC
EFFECT (digesting and using food) is the remainder.
RMR is calculated in CALORIES per day / hour
For MEN - Multiply Body Weight by 10, and Add X2 the Body Weight. EG:
150 lb = 150 x 10 = 1500. 150 x 2 = 300. 1500 + 300 = 1800 Calories Per Day
or 1800 / 24 = 75 Per Hour
For FEMALES: Same equation but only add the exact body weight (not X2)
This is to meet energy requirements at REST. During EXERCISE we need to
calculate energy expenditure. We can use the METs Method (METABOLIC
EQUIVALENT TASK) This is the ratio of WORKING metabolic rate relative
to their RESTING metabolic rate. METs uses 02 consumption per unit of body
weight per minute (02/Kg/min) to measure EXERCISE INTENSITY. At REST
our bodies use 3.5ml/Kg/min which is equivalent to 0.0175 kcal/Kg/min which
is equivalent to 1 MET which is equivalent to your RESTING V02 or RMR
2 METs is twice that at rest. 3 METs is three times that at rest etc
BASAL METABOLIC RATE
• If you MULTIPLY your RMR with the activity’s MET value you can work
out Calories Needed or Used. For example:
For a 150lb female footballer in a 60 minute game =
150 X 10 + 150 ÷ 24 x 8.0 = 550
• A more ACCURATE way is to use 0.0175 cal/kg/min = 3.5ml/kg/min.
150lb = 68.1Kg (1 lb = 0.454 Kg)
8 METs X 0.0175 = 0.14 kcal/kg/min (1 MET = 0.0175 kcal/kg/min)
0.14 X 68.1 = 9.534 kcal / min
9.534 X 60 = 572.04 kcal
• An ALTERNATIVE is as follows:
TOTAL CALORIES = (METs x 3.5 x Weight in Kg) ÷ 200 x Time (mins)
BURNED
(8 x 3.5 x 68.1) = 1906.8
1960.8 ÷ 200 = 9.534 kcal/min
9.534 x 60 = 572.04 kcal per hour
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ENERGY INTAKE
Energy Intake is the FOOD CONSUMED or DIETARY INTAKE. The
recommended daily intake VARIES between people but GUIDELINES exist.;
The UK Dept of Health ESTIMATED AVERAGE REQUIREMENTS (EAR)
suggest 1940 calories per day for WOMEN and 2550 for MEN, but this varies
due to AGE, HEIGHT, WEIGHT, ACTIVITY and BODY COMPOSITION
A BALANCED diet should contain PROTEIN (10-15%) FAT (Up to 30%)
CARBOHYDRATE ‘CHO’ (55-60%) and include 5 A DAY FOOD GROUPS
(Bread and cereal, Fruit and Veg, Meat and Fish, Dairy, Fats) which ensure
Vitamins, Minerals, Water and Roughage
ATHLETES need to ADAPT their diet. EG: Endurance athletes need a higher
percentage of CHO, whereas Power athletes would need more Protein. In
addition they will need to consume more calories. It can go up to 6000 kcal
RMR energy expenditure = 1.3 Calories per Hour per Kg of Weight.
Estimated Physical Activity Expenditure is 8.5 Calories per Hour per Weight
A 75 Kg male athlete’s RMR would be 2340 Calories a day (75 x 1.3 x 24). If
they performed 90 minutes of Physical Activity he would expend 956 Calories
(75 x 8.5 x 1.5) Total Energy Expenditure is 3296 Calories. The athlete could
then adapt their diet for a positive, neutral or negative ENERGY BALANCE.
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ENERGY INTAKE
In addition the percentages of the balanced diet can now be calculated so:
CHOs: 55% of 3296 = 1813 Calories
Fats: 30% of 3296 is 989 Calories
Protein: 15% of 3296 is 494 Calories
However the food sources have different ENERGY YIELDS per gram. CHOs
and PROTEIN provide 4 Calories per Gram and FATs provide 9 Calories per
Gram. Therefore:
CHO 1813 ÷ 4 = 453 Grams Needed
Fats 989 ÷ 9 = 110 Grams Needed
Protein 494 ÷ 4 = 124 Grams Needed
Subjectively calculate your actual daily dietary / calorie intake .
How might you alter your intake now you have amore accurate idea of your
energy intake requirements
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HEALTH IMPLICATIONS OF OBESITY
A POSITIVE ENERGY BALANCE is when your energy INTAKE is greater
than the energy EXPEDITURE. This causes WEIGHT GAIN and OBESITY
Obesity is not a disease. It has increased over the last 10 years. Most ADULTS
in the UK are over weight. The average Briton has a BMI of 25.5. It increases
with AGE. A THIRD of children are overweight or obese. If TRENDS
continue 60% of men and 50% of women will be obese by 2050
Too much fat is associated with DIABETES, CANCERS, CV issues such as
CHD, ANGINA, VARICOSE VEINS, DEEP VEIN THROMBOSIS, Increased
blood LIPIDS, ATHEROSCLEROSIS, high BLOOD PRESSURE, STROKE,
FATIGUE, POSTURAL Issues, PSYCHOLOGICAL HARM, Under
PERFORMANCE in work
The NHS BILL has soared in this area and it causes 18 million sick days a year
and costs £2-3 Billion.
What advice would you give the government in light of these statistics? Begin
to draft a plan that could rectify this issue.
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PERFORMANCE IMPLICATIONS OF BODY WEIGHT
A Main characteristic of successful performers is LOW BODY FAT content.
Athletes generally carry less body fat due to increased expenditure but they
may have HIGH BODY MASS/ WEIGHT. Sprinters would be a good example.
ANAEROBIC athletes have HEAVY bodies and LOW FAT mass. ENDURANCE
athletes have LOW BODY MASS and LOW BODY FAT. Increased weight is fine
if it is Muscle Mass which will generate force.
Athletes can end up with the opposite effect of Obesity with too little body fat.
Less than 5% in men and 10-15% in women reduces the effect of the immune
system. Females MENSTRUAL Cycles are affected below 18% and this can
decrease OESTROGEN levels increasing the chance of OSTEOPOROSIS.
Increased activity by OBESE people increases LOAD BEARING on joints and
they will have reduced MOBILITY, FLEXIBILITY, and FATIGUE resistance.
These as well as cosmetic / vanity reasons mean obese people view exercise
negatively
FLEXIBILITY
• FLEXIBILITY is the range of motion at a joint, or series of joints
• It is JOINT SPECIFIC EG: Someone may have more flexibility in one
joint compared to another …and it is SPORT SPECIFIC EG: some
sports require more flexibility than others. There are 2 types
1) STATIC FLEXIBILITY – the range of motion without speed
2) DYNAMIC FLEXIBILITY – the range of motion taking into account
the speed of the movement and reflecting the joints resistance to
movement
• STATIC FLEXIBILITY is a pre requisite to DYNAMIC FLEXIBILITY
• STRETCHING is the TRAINING METHOD which increases flexibility
• Flexibility is the most UNDER VALUED and neglected health fitness
component but it is CRITICAL for sports participation
• FLEXIBILITY TRAINING has many PHYSIOLOGICAL BENEFITS
but is affected by a variety of FACTORS
• MUSCLE SPINDLES are Proprioceptors in muscles which send
information to the CNS about the length and rate of change of muscles
MEASURING FLEXIBILITY
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There is no single test to measure flexibility as it is JOINT
SPECIFIC. The most common is the SIT & REACH TEST: Hip
GONIOMETRY is a VALID, ACCURATE and recognised measure
of flexibility. It uses an ANGLE RULER measuring the number of
degrees from a NEUTRAL starting position to the end of a full
ROM (RANGE OF MOTION)
Using a Protractor measure a Partner’s
1) Hip Flexion and Extension
2) Shoulder Flexion and Extension
3) Hip Abduction
Compare your results. What does this say about your likelihood of
performance in your sport?
FLEXIBILITY TRAINING
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1)
2)
3)
4)
MAINTENANCE STRETCHING is that done in a warm up. It does not
improve ROM.
FLEXIBILITY TRAINING is a minimum of 10-15 minutes devoted to
this. Called DEVELOPMENTAL STRETCHING . It can improve ROM
There are 4 types of stretches which aim to stretch the connective tissues
beyond the ROM to encourage LONG TERM ADAPTATIONS.
STATIC STRETCHING: This can be STATIC ACTIVE (unassisted) and
STATIC PASSIVE (assisted either by gravity, external force, partner)
BALLISTIC STRETCHING: Use of momentum to move the joint forcibly
through its ROM. Involves fast, swinging, bouncing movements. It
creates muscle tension which can reduce flexibility in connective tissue.
DOMS risk increases. It produces limited long term adaptations. Can
cause injury if untrained
DYNAMIC STRETCHING: A controlled version of Ballistic Stretching.
Can be performed ACTIVELY or PASSIVELY.
PROPRIOCEPTIVE NEUROMUSCULAR FACILITATION (PNF ). It
inhibits the STRETCH REFLEX. 3 stages a) Static stretch beyond ROM
b) Contract ISOMETRICALLY (inhibits reflex) c) Relax and Repeat
FLEXIBILITY TRAINING
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The F.I.T.T principle must be applied to Flexibility Training
Frequency = from 2 to 4 sessions per week.
Intensity = from mild tension to extreme.
Time = Minimum of 10 seconds and maximum of 30 seconds and repeat
3-6 times.
Type.. One of the 4 Methods
A) Design a Flexibility Session for a named elite athlete. Now design a
session for a middle aged housewife who has not exercised for years.
Critically evaluate the 4 methods in your justification for your choices.
B) Describe the ADAPTATIONS and BENEFITS of Flexibility Training
Think about:
• Elasticity of Muscle and Connective Tissue
• Resting Length of Muscle and Connective Tissue
• Stretch Reflex Action
• ROM
• Force and Acceleration of Muscles and their Efficiency
• Potential to Injury
ENERGY CONCEPTS
1) CHEMICAL ENERGY: Plants convert SUNLIGHT into energy which is stored
within the BONDS of chemical COMPOUNDS or MOLECULES. This is then
passed to HUMANS in the form of FOOD. It is stored as CHO, PROTEIN or
FATS. We then further store this energy in a HIGH ENERGY compound
called ADENOSINE TRI-PHOSPHATE (ATP). ATP can be immediately used
as energy by the body. Energy found between the bonds of ATP is called ....
2) POTENTIAL ENERGY: This is when energy is ready to use, for example
when muscles CONTRACT. This energy is called …
3) KINETIC ENERGY: which is energy in the form of MOVEMENT.
• ENERGY is the ability to perform WORK or put MASS into MOTION. In
human terms it means contracting muscles for physical activity. It is
measured in JOULES (J) which is equivalent to 1 NEWTON force or 1Kg
acting over a distance of 1 metre. It can also be measured in CALORIES and
this is equivalent to 4.18 Joules.
• WORK is when a FORCE is applied to a body to move it over a distance.
WORK = FORCE (N) X DISTANCE MOVED (M) measured in Joules
• POWER is the RATE at which WORK can be done. It is work divide by time.
POWER = WORK / TIME or (FORCE (N) x DISTANCE (M)) / TIME (secs)
The UNITS are WATTS (W). Force X Distance = PURE STRENGTH
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2)
3)
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ADENOSINE TRI PHOSPHATE (ATP)
ATP is made up of a complex element called ADENOSINE and three simple
elements called PHOSPHATEs (P). These elements are held together by
BONDS which are HIGH ENERGY bonds. An ENZYME called ATPase breaks
the bonds between 2 of the Phosphates. When it does this it releases ENERGY
which is used for muscular CONTRACTIONS. This is an EXOTHERMIC
reaction because it RELEASES ENERGY as it progresses.
The COMPOUND which is left is called ADENOSINE DI PHOSPHATE (ADP).
If there is no ATP present then energy for work is not possible. The body only
has a LIMITED CAPACITY to store ATP. It can only last for 2 to 3 SECONDS
of work. After this time the body has to find a way of RESYNTHESISING
ADP back into ATP again. It has lost a Phosphate. ADP must find another to
REBUILD it an become reusable. This is an ENDOTHERMIC REACTION
because energy is REQUIRED from somewhere to progress.
The body has 3 ENERGY SYSTEMS with which to re-synthesise ADP to ATP.
The ATP / PC SYSTEM
The LACTIC ACID SYSTEM
The AEROBIC SYSTEM
Each system uses energy from one reaction to use in another reaction. This is
called a COUPLED REACTION
ENERGY SYSTEMS
• The 3 Energy Systems that re-synthesise ATP from ADP are the 1) ATP/PC
system 2) Lactic Acid System 3) Aerobic Energy System
• When ATP levels fall and ADP levels rise an ENZYME called CREATINE
KINASE is released and this breaks the PC bond in an EXOTHERMIC
reaction. This energy is used to re-synthesise ATP from ADP in an
ENDOTHERMIC reaction
1. The ATP / PC system can work ANAEROBICALLY as well as
AEROBICALLY but it does NOT require 02. It takes place in the
SARCOPLASM of the cell. However it can only supply enough PC to resynthesise ADP to ATP for 3 to 10 seconds during MAXIMAL intensity. In
recovery, Creatine and Phosphate (Pi) are re-synthesised back to PC
TRAINING ADAPTATIONS: Anaerobic Training overloads the ATP / PC
system and increases the muscle’s ATP and PC stores which delays the
THRESHOLD between using this system and the Lactic Acid System by 2 secs
ADVANTAGES: No 02, Quickly Available, Quick Reaction, Explosive,
Powerful, No Fatiguing By Products, PC re-synthesised quickly
DISADVANTAGES: Stores are small, 1PC re-synthesises 1ATP, Only energy
for 8 – 10 secs
ENERGY SYSTEMS
2) The LACTIC ACID SYSTEM: This system uses GLYCOGEN to re-synthesise
ADP back to ATP. The energy released through breaking down glucose is
used to do this. This is also a COUPLED and ENDOTHERMIC reaction.
Glucose is CHO in the body and when it is stored it is called GLYCOGEN. The
decrease in PC stores activates the ENZYME GLYCOGEN PHOSPHORYLASE
which breaks down the glycogen into glucose. It is then further broken down
into PYRUVIC ACID in a process called GLYCOLYSIS. The process takes
place in the SARCOPLASM, does not require 02 and is called ANAEROBIC
GLYCOLYSIS. This process releases 2 ATP from one glucose molecule
During Glycolysis the ENZYME PHOSPHOFRUKTIKINASE (PFK) causes
the breakdown into Pyruvic Acid but without 02 this breaks down further
into LACTIC ACID by the ENZYME LACTATE DEHYDROGENASE (LDH).
This process re-synthesises energy for 2 – 3 minutes of high intensity exercise
but if activity is MAXIMAL it will only last 30 seconds
ADVANTAGES: Relatively QUICK, no 02 required, Glycogen readily available
DISADVANTAGES: OBLA, Inhibition of ENZYMES due to lower Ph,
increased FATIGUE, stimulates PAIN receptors
TRAINING ADAPTATIONS: Overloading this system will increase LACTATE
BUFFER and delay OBLA
ENERGY SYSTEMS
3) The AEROBIC ENERGY SYSTEM: This has 3 stages to re-synthesise ATP.
All 3 systems require 02 to break down 1 molecule of Glucose
STAGE 1: AEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS: This is the same process as anaerobic
glycolysis but instead the presence of 02 INHIBITS the accumulation of
LACTIC ACID. The 02 uses PYRUVIC ACID and this combines with
‘CoENZYME A’ to become ‘ACETYL CoENZYME A’. This takes place in the
SARCOPLASM.
STAGE 2: KREB’s CYCLE: The ‘ACETYL CoENZYME A’ now combines with
OXALOACETIC ACID to form CITRIC ACID in the MITOCHONDRIA. This is
then broken down to produce 4 EVENTS 1) C02 is produced and removed 2)
HYDROGEN ATOMS are removed (Oxidation) 3) OXALOACETIC ACID is
regenerated which is used again 4) Energy is produced to re-synthesise 2 ATP
STAGE 3: The ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN (ETC): HYDROGEN
ATOMS released in Stage 2 combines with CoENZYMES NAD and FAD to
form NADH and FADH. These are carried down the ETC where HYDROGEN
is split into HYDROGEN IONS (H+) and HYDROGEN ELECTRONS (e-).
This takes place in the MITOCHONDRIA and 3 EVENTS follow 1) e- split
from the atom and pass down the ETC 2) This provides ENERGY to
synthesise 34 ATP 3) H+ combines with 02 to form water (H20)
ENERGY SYSTEMS
ADAVANTAGES: large GLYCOGEN & FFA stores, 02 supply Large synthesis,
High DURATION (3 mins to 1 hr), No fatuiging BY PRODUCTS (C02/H20)
DISADVANTAGES: Slower Resynthesis, Requires 15% more 02 supply for
FFAs, COMPLEX reactions, Initial DELAY of synthesis at start of activity,
Limited ENERGY during high intensity activity
FATS (TRIGLYCERIDES) are broken down by ENZYME LIPASE into FFAs
which are the broken down into ACETYL CoA. This is where it enters the
KREB Cycle. They can produce more Acetyl CoA than Glucose but require
15% more 02. TRAINING increases Glycogen in muscle and liver, increases
mobilisation of Enzymes and uses FFAs early = Aerobic Threshold increased
• TOTAL ENERGY YIELD from the Aerobic System is 38 ATP from one
molecule of Glucose
• 2 ATP from Anaerobic Glycolysis
• 2 ATP from the Kreb’s Cycle
• 34 ATP from the ETC
EQUATION for AEROBIC RESPIRATION:
C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 = 6C02 + 6 H20 + ENERGY (for 38 ATP re-synthesis)
Glucose is completely broken down in the Aerobic system by 02 into C02 and H20
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ENERGY CONTINUUM
The Energy Continuum is a GRAPHICAL display of how the energy systems
INTERACT together to provide energy for the re-synthesis of ATP. It
highlights the PERCENTAGE of each of these 3 systems relating to both the
DURATION and the INTENSITY of the activity.
Each sport/physical activity requires di8fferent percentages from each system.
They RARELY work in ISOLATION. Some activities are mainly AEROBIC
whilst others are ANAEROBIC. Most use a COMBINATION of all 3
Draw the following graph to represent how the Energy Systems Interact.
X Axis = Time in minutes from 0 to 360 seconds and the Y Axis = Capacity of
Energy System in % from 0 to 100%. Plot the following data for 3 lines
1) ATP / PC System (12, 98) (16, 50) (22 ,5)
2) Lactic Acid System (Anaerobic Glycolysis) (2, 1) (15, 60) (20, 95) (45,
98) (120, 93) (180, 50) (240, 35) (300, 25)
3) Aerobic Energy System (10, 10) (20, 25) (120 , 40) (300, 70) (360, 98)
Highlight the points at which the PREDOMINAT energy system changes
THE 6 FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE TYPE OF ENERGY SYSTEM USED
1) INTENSITY and DURATION of the exercise: when the intensity is
ANAEROBIC HIGH INTENSITY SHORT duration the system will be ATP/PC
When intensity is LOW and duration is LONG the system will be AEROBIC.
When intensity reaches a point that the aerobic system cannot be used it uses
the LACTIC ACID system but this produces LACTIC ACID. The LACTATE
THRESHOLD crossed when blood lactate is above resting levels. When blood
lactate reaches 4mmol/L and above then OBLA has been reached. Fatigue
will occur
2) ENERGY SYSTEM THRESHOLDS: a threshold is the POINT at which an
energy system is taken over by another. ATP/PC system is 2-10seconds. ATP /
PC changes to Lactic Acid System at 10 – 90 seconds. Lactic Acid to Aerobic
System changes at 90 seconds to 3 minutes. After this it is the Aerobic System
unless INTENSITY is high.
3) 02 AVAILABILITY: As long as 02 supply is there the Aerobic System will resynthesise ATP. If there is INSUFFICIENT 02 the LACTIC ACID system will
be used. This is dependent on Respiratory and CV EFFICIENCY
THE 6 FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE TYPE OF ENERGY SYSTEM USED
4) FUEL AVAILABILITY: PC will be used for SHORT, HIGH intensity activity.
Duration cannot be sustained when PC stores DEPLETE and intensity remain
HIGH. PACING can conserve PC stores and RECOVERY periods can resynthesise them. GLYCOGEN is the MAJOR fuel for the first 20 minutes of
activity. It is readily available in the muscles and requires 15% less 02 than
FFAs. It takes 2-3 minutes to use this though as sufficient 02 has not had
time. Between 20 – 45 minutes FFAs will be broken down as well but only if
intensity is LOW because of the need for 15% more 02. High LIVER
GLYCOGEN levels will allow the athlete to maintain a higher intensity After 2
HOURS glycogen is DEPLETED and FFAs must be used. Unless athletes
reduce intensity to allow 02 supply they may HIT THE WALL.
5) ENZYME ACTIVATION LEVELS: Reactions cannot take place without them.
CREATINE KINASE is released when ADP increases and ATP decreases.
This activates the PC system. PFK is released when PC decreases and this
activates the Lactic Acid system. PFK is also released when ADRENALIN
increases and INSULIN decreases, activating the AEROBIC system
6) FITNESS LEVELS: The more aerobically fit an athlete is the better 02/C02
transport which is essential to break down glycogen and FFAs. Conserving
glycogen is crucial to delay OBLA and aerobic and lactate THRESHOLDS
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1)
2)
THE RECOVERY PROCESS
The Recovery process is concerned with the events AFTER exercise. It is
important DURING exercise to allow performers to MAINTAIN performance
and also AFTER exercise to SPEED UP their recovery. The aim is to
RESTORE the body to its PRE EXERCISE STATE by removing BY
PRODUCTS and by the REPLENISHMENT of FUELS.
After exercise the body does not return immediately to its pre exercise state.
RESPIRATION and HEART RATE remain elevated. This is known as EPOC
(EXCESS POST EXERCISE 02 CONSUMPTION) or 02 Debt. It has 2 STAGES:
ALACTACID DEBT: (RAPID RECOVERY Stage) This restores stores of
PHOSPHAGEN and the re-synthesis of ATP , PC, MYOGLOBIN and Hb. It
requires approximately 3-4 Litres of 02 and takes about 3-4 minutes but 50%
are restored in 30 seconds and 75% restored in 1 minute
LACTACID DEBT: (SLOW RECOVERY Stage) Early research thought this
was responsible for the removal or re-conversion of LACTIC ACID into either
PYRUVIC ACID (which can be used as fuel) GLYCOGEN or PROTEIN. Now
it is thought that it supports A) METABOLIC FUNCTIONS such as HIGH
TEMPERATURE, B) remaining HORMONES such as adrenalin, and C)
elevated CARDIAC OUTPUT to reduce temperature. It requires 5-8 Litres of
02 and can take between 1-24 hours depending on the exercise intensity
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THE RECOVERY PROCESS
Increased levels of C02 formed during exercise is removed as CARBONIC
ACID, CARBOAMINOHAEMOGLOBIN, or in the PLASMA. The
CHEMORECEPTORS stimulate the RCC and the CCC to ensure that
respiration and heart rate are ELEVATED during recovery to assist C02
removal.
A major factor of MUSCLE FATIGUE is GLYCOGEN DEPLETION. Most can
be REPLENISHED within 10-12 hours after exercise. Complete recovery can
take 2 DAYS in prolonged endurance events. FAST twitch fibres can replenish
quicker. CARBOHYDRATES in recovery are crucial for this to happen
Draw the following graph for Glycogen Depletion: X axis = Time of Exercise
(0 to 1 hour )and Recovery (0 to 24 hours). Y axis = Muscle Glycogen % (0 to
100%)
Plot the following:
A) Exercise Time 0 mins = 100%, 1 hour = 30 %
B) Recovery Time 4 hours = 50%, 8 hours = 60%, 12 hours = 70%, 16 hours
= 77%, 20 hours = 83%, 24 hours = 90%
Label the graph
APPLICATIONS OF THE PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING
• Remember the Principles of Training by MRS VOPP who is TESTING the WC
• MODERATION is striking the right BALANCE between too little training and
too much. Too much, too soon can result in injuries
• REVERSIBILITY the adaptations to training are reversed if training stops.
ATROPHY (decrease in cell size) can result. Results are lost 3 times as quickly
as they are gained. AEROBIC adaptations reverse quicker than ANAEROBIC
• SPECIFICITY: Training must reflect the demands of the sport and it is applied
in 2 ways 1) INDIVIDUAL: Genetic differences 2) THE SPORT concentrating
on the energy systems, fitness components, muscle fibres etc
• VARIATION: If your training is varied it will increase MOTIVATION. It also
can prevent injury through REPETITIVE strain
• OVERLOAD: is when the body is made to work harder than normal to cause
ADAPTATION. It is achieved in 4 WAYS 1) FREQUENCY (how often) 2)
INTENSITY (how hard) 3) TIME (how long) 4) TYPE (aerobic or anaerobic
training)
• PROGRESSION: This is gradually increasing the level of overload to ensure
further adaptation. This is called PROGRESSIVE OVERLOAD. These are
greater EARLY in training. The point of DIMINISHING RETURN is reached
when further progression brings about no adaptations
APPLICATIONS OF THE PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING
• Remember the Principles of Training by MRS VOPP who is TESTING the WC
• PERIODISATION is the organisation of training into specific BLOCKS. The
ultimate aim is to ensure that athletes reach their PEAK at the correct TIME
such as the Olympics. You divide your TRAINING YEAR into 3 seasons
1) PRE SEASON: There are 3 parts to this. 1.1 BASIC FITNESS phase, 1.2
SPECIFIC EVENT phase and 1.3 PRE COMPETITION phase
2) COMPETITIVE SEASON: Consists of 2.1 MAINTENANCE phase (reduced
intensity, rest, tactics) and 2.2 MONITORING AND RECOVERY phase
(tapered down training, avoid BURN OUT)
3) TRANSITION (OFF) SEASON: Consists of 3.1 REST/RECOVERY phase
(low level remedial activity) and 3.2 LOW LEVEL phase (cross training)
To each you need to apply 3 basic CYCLES A) MACRO CYCLE which is a
LONG term plan EG: 1 year MEGA cycles lasts more than 1 year. B) MESO
CYCLE is a MEDIUM term typically between 4 and 16 weeks C) MICRO
CYCLE is SHORT term lasting typically 1 week but can last up to 3 weeks. It is
a recurrent UNIT. A UNIT can also be an individual training session, or parts
of it. A week of 3 training sessions is 3 Units. However in the same session
there may be 2 units – strength and flexibility.
• Periodisation BENEFITS are the application of the PRINCIPLES of training
APPLICATIONS OF THE PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING
• TESTING: This allows you to MONITOR your training to ensure correct level
of OVERLOAD and to ensure further ADAPTATIONS and avoid BURN OUT
• WARM UP: This should precede any activity to help prepare
PHYSIOLOGICALLY and MENTALLY. Benefits include increased muscle
TEMPERATURE, nerve impulse CONDUCTION, 02 DISSOCIATION, muscle
FORCE, SPEED, ELASTICITY and CONTRACTION. It releases SYNOVIAL
FLUID, REDISTRIBUTES blood flow, reduces INJURY, delays OBLA.
• There are 3 phases:
1) PULSE RAISER
2) MOBILITY
3) STRETCHING.
• COOL DOWN: There are 2 phases
1) PULSE LOWERING (Active Recovery)
2) STRETCHING
• The benefits include maintained VR, SV, Q, VE and Bp. Gradual muscle
TEMP reduced, reduces risk of DOMS and INJURY, flushes capillaries with
02, speeds up LACTIC ACID removal, prevents BLOOD POOLING
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1)
A)
B)
C)
D)
2)
A)
B)
C)
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APPLICATIONS OF THE PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING
Draw the following 2 graphs related to OVERLOAD and TRAINING
ZONES
EXERCISE TARGET ZONE: X Axis = Age from 20 to 70. Y Axis = Heart
Rate in BPM from 0 to 220. Identify the following TARGET ZONES
ANAEROBIC THRESHOLD ZONE: 85% to 100% of maximum Heart
Rate
TARGET HEART RATE ZONE; 65% to 85% of Maximum Heart Rate
FAT BURNING ZONE: 50% to 65% of Maximum Heart Rate
RECOVERY ZONE: 50% or less
TRAINING TARGET HEART RATE: X Axis = Age from 20 to 90. Y Axis
= Heart Rate in BPM from 0 to 220. Identify the following TRAINING
TARGETS
Maximum Heart Rate
ANEAROBIC THRESHOLD: 85%
TRAINING ZONE: 75% to 85%
Apply the Principles of Training to your Sport
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AEROBIC CAPACITY TESTING
MEASUREMENT is an essential TOOL to ensure that OVERLOAD is
PROGRESSIVE and MODERATION of TRAINING are matched to the
requirements of the activity.
There are many TESTS for aerobic capacity / V02 Max. They can vary in
RELIABILITY and VALIDITY but the fact that they can be RETESTED
allows for a practical approach to improvement
One tests is the PHYSICAL WORKING CAPACITY TEST (PWC 170)
which is on a CYCLE ERGONOMETER. The cyclist performs at 3
PROGRESSIVE INTENSITIES and their HEART RATES are recored. A
PREDICTION is then made about the intensity the athlete is working at
when their heart rate is 170BPMs
The MULTI STAGE FITNESS TEST (MSFT) is a 20m PROGRESSIVE
shuttle run marked by a BEEP which INCREASES in FREQUENCY as the
LEVELS increase. The level gained by the athlete is compared to
STANDARDISED TABLES and these PREDICT V02 Max values for males
and females
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AEROBIC CAPACITY TESTING
Critically evaluate the 2 INDIRECT V02 Max tests
PHYSICAL WORKING CAPACITY TEST (PWC 170)
MULTI STAGE FITNESS TEST
Think about:
Validity and Reliability
Advantages and Disadvantages
How do these tests compare to the DIRECT methods of measurement?
Draw the following graph to represent the V02 Max Norms and Capacity
rating by Age. X Axis = Age from 5 to 90. Y Axis = V02 Max in ml/kg/min.
Plot the following data Excellent Capacity 3% of Population: (5, 62)
(12,65) (75, 30)(90,20) Very Good Capacity 8% of Population : (5, 56)
(12,60) (75, 28) (90, 18) Good Capacity 22% of Population : (5, 51)
(12,53) (75, 25) (90,16) Average Capacity 34% of Population : (5, 44)
(12,47) (75,23) (90,16) Fair Capacity 22% of Population : (5, 38) (12,40)
(75, 20) (90,12) Poor Capacity 8% of Population : (5, 33) (12,34) (75,15
(90,11) Very Poor Capacity 3% of Population are below this line
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ENERGY SYSTEM AND FOOD FUELS DURING AEROBIC WORK
ATP and PC are the immediate fuels for AEROBIC exercise.
RESYNTHESIS of ATP involves all 3 stages: 1) AEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS 2)
KREB’s CYCLE 3) ETC ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN.
Aerobic work is fuelled by GLYCOGEN / GLUCOSE and FREE FATTY
ACIDS. This depends on the INTENSITY and DURATION of the session
and the AVAILABILITY of the fuel.
Glycogen is the major fuel for the first 20-40 minutes
During MODERATE to SEVERE intensity the fuel is only glycogen
After 20-45 minutes the body can use FATS along with glycogen and its use
increases as the glycogen stores DEPLETE. Fats can only be used if the
INTENSITY is LOW as the 02 need is much higher than for glycogen
After 2 hours glycogen stores deplete and Fat is used in isolation.
If INTENSITY is too HIGH then OBLA is reached and glycogen has to be
broken down ANAEROBICALLY.
A STEP CLASS is popular with women. Usually it consists of 5-10 min
warm up followed by 30-40 mins of CV work followed by 10-15 mins of
body weight exercise. Analyse the fuel use in this time period.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM AEROBIC ADAPTATIONS
• 2 ADAPTATIONS and OVERALL NET EFFECT of AEROBIC TRAINING
on RESPIRATORY system
A) ADAPTATION 1 = Respiratory Muscles become STRONGER which result
in INCREASED EFFICIENCY of:
1) MECHANICS of BREATHING
2) LUNG VOLUMES (f, VE, TV)
3) Maximal BREATHING RATE
4) Respiratory FATIGUE RESISTANCE
5) And DECREASE in the SUB MAX BREATHING RATE
B) ADAPTATION 2 = Increase in AVEOLI SURFACE AREA which
INCREASE:
1) EXTERNAL RESPIRATION and DIFFUSION
2) A – V02 diff (less 02 exhaled = more of it used)
OVERALL NET EFFECT = Increased V02 MAX
•
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
CARDIO VASCULAR (HEART) SYSTEM AEROBIC ADAPTATIONS
ADAPTATION 1 = HYPERTROPHY of left ventricle wall which leads to:
Increased EDV
Increased VENTRICULAR STRETCH and RECOIL
Increased FORCE of contraction
Increased STROKE VOLUME
Increased RECOVERY TIME after exercise
And also
1) Decreased ESV
2) Decreased Resting and Sub Max HEART RATE (<60=BRADYCARDIA)
OVERALL NET EFFECT = Increased BLOOD FLOW, MAXIMAL CARDIAC
OUTPUT (Q) and increased 02 TRANSPORT
CARDIO VASCULAR (VASCULAR) SYSTEM AEROBIC ADAPTATIONS
• ADAPTATION 1 = Increased ELASTICITY of ARTERIAL walls results in:
1)
2)
3)
4)
•
Increased VASCULAR SHUNT efficiency
Increased BLOOD PRESSURE regulation
Increased Exercise SYSTOLE Bp and more 02 blood supply
Decrease in resting SYSTOLE / DIASTOLE Bp
ADAPTATION 2 = Increased No. of RED BLOOD CELLS / Hb and PLASMA
VOLUME which results in:
1) Increased GASEOUS EXCHANGE / 02 Transport
2) Increased VENOUS RETURN
3) Increased STROKE VOLUME and CARDIAC OUTPUT (Q)
4) Decreased VISCOSITY during exercise
• ADAPTATION 3 = Increased CAPILLARISATION around the ALVEOLI and
TYPE 1 Muscle Fibres which results in:
1) Increase in SURFACE AREA, a- V02 diff, TIME for DIFFUSION, removal of
LACTIC ACID and C02 during OBLA
2) Decrease in DISTANCE of DIFFUSION and increased blood flow VELOCITY
OVERALL NET EFFECT = Increased efficiency and 02 / C02 TRANSPORT
MUSCULAR SYSTEM AEROBIC ADAPTATIONS
• ADAPTATION 1 = Increased TYPE 1 and 11a HYPERTROPHY results in:
1)
2)
3)
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Increased STRENGTH and reduced FATIGUE
Increased SKILL
Decreased ENERGY COST
ADAPTATION 2 = Increased CAPILLARISATION increases 02/C02 transport
ADAPTATION 3 = TYPE 11a FIBRE AEROBIC CAPACITY
ADAPTATION 4 = Increased MYOGLOBIN stores leads to increase 02 into
MITOCHONDRIA
ADAPTATION 5 = Increased AEROBIC ENZYMES results in increased
METABOLISM of FAT not glycogen
ADAPTATION 6 = Increased SPEED to use FATS earlier which conserves
GLYCOGEN and increases
ADAPTATION 7 = Increased No. of MITOCHONDRIA results in improved 02
/ FAT metabolism for AEROBIC work
ADAPTATION 8 = Increased MUSCLE GLYCOGEN / FAT stores results in
increased ENERGY FUELS to re- synthesise ATP
OVERALL NET EFFECT = Increased MUSCLE CAPACITY to generate ATP
CONNECTIVE TISSUE AEROBIC ADAPTATIONS
• ADAPTATION 1 = Increased STRENGTH of TENDONS
• ADAPTATION 2 = Greater THICKNESS and STRENGTH of LIGAMENTS
• ADAPTATION 3 = Increased THICKNESS of CARTILAGE
• ADAPTATION 4 = Increased CALCIUM content and STRENGTH of bones
• ADAPTATION 5 = Reduced BODY FAT composition which results in
decreased DEAD WEIGHT and an increase POWER to WEIGHT RATIO
OVERALL NET EFFECT = Increased STRENGTH of MUSCULO SKELETAL
LEVERS, less risk of INJURY and reduced rate of AGEING
HEALTH LIFESTYLE AREAS - AEROBIC ADAPTATIONS
• ADAPTATION 1 = COMBINED effects such as Increased in the LACTATE
THRESHOLD and delay of OBLA
• ADAPTATION 2 = Overall net effects of Increase in V02 Max results in
Increased INTENSITY and DURATION of aerobic performance
• ADAPTATION 3 = AEROBIC METABOLISM results in increased ability of
muscles to use FUEL / 02 and to supply fuels and 02 to the muscles
OVERALL NET EFFECT = Increase in MAXIMUM RATE OF AEROBIC WORK
and ENDURANCE and a decrease in LACTATE production
PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT
• ERGOGENIC AIDS are anything that ENHANCES performance. They can
be LEGAL or ILLEGAL. The IOC and WADA have produced a list of aids
that are BANNED. Governing bodies also do this. This does include
MASKING DRUGS which hide the presence of other drugs
1) DIETARY MANIPULATION is used PRE COMPETITION, on
COMPETITION DAY and DURING EXERCISE. FLUIDs are important
A) PRE COMPETITION: CARBOHYDRATE LOADING is a strategy to
increase GLYCOGEN stores. It is a 10 day method consisting of depleting
glycogen stores 7 days before the event. The next 3 days consist of not
eating CHOs to fully deplete them . A diet high in Fats increases the
enzyme GLYOGEN SYNTHASE which breaks down glycogen. From 3 – 4
days prior to event a diet high in CHO and FLUIDS and low in fat and
proteins is consumed. This LOADS the muscles with glycogen because of
the increased STORAGE. TRAINING is TAPERED during this period
B) COMPETITION DAY: a CHO meal 2 to 4 hours before the event tops up
LIVER GLYCOGEN. High VOLUMES of food and FIBRE type foods
should not be eaten in days before. An hour before athletes shouln’t eat
CHO as it can cause REACTIVE HYPOGLYCEAMIA. CHOCOLATE
eaten 5 minutes before can benefit the performer.
PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT
C) DURING EXERCISE: Athletes should consume regular fluid and food high
in CHO during activity of 45 minutes or more to REPLENISH glycogen
stores. FLUID INTAKE during exercise is important. The body’s THIRST
mechanism does not match HYDRATION LEVELS. Feeling thirsty means
you are already well DEHYDRATED. This can reduce PERFORMANCE
and increase TEMPERATURE and so regular intake is important.
• TYPES OF SPORTS DRINKS:
1) HYPOTONIC: have 4 % glucose levels – lower than the blood (5 – 7 %).
They are vital during prolonged exercise to reduce dehydration and
partially increases ENERGY
2) ISOTONIC: promote fluid HYDRATION and replenishment of GLUCOSE.
They have equal levels of glucose to the blood.
3) HYPERTONIC: suitable for post exercise RECOVERY. 19% GLUCOSE .
They will promote DEHYDRATION if taken during the event because
water is needed to convert CHO into glycogen
4) WATER: is best absorbed without Glucose. Water therefore must be
consumed during CARBO LOADING and in hot HUMID conditions
OTHER AIDS TO PERFORMANCE
• CREATINE SUPPLEMENTS: this is made up of AMINO ACIDS which are
proteins building blocks. It is found in some foods and naturally occurs in
the liver. It is STORED in small amounts in the muscle as PC CREATINE
PHOSPHATE. This is used to re-synthesise ATP. CREATINE
SUPPLEMENTS come in pill and powder form and are taken to increase
PC stores in the muscle. This increases ATP/PC capacity. It is LEGAL and
can improve performance.
• HUMAN GROWTH HORMONE: are produced naturally by the
PITUITARY gland. It exists to allow GROWTH. HGH can be used
synthetically as a SUBSTITUTE to ANABOLIC STEROIDS (which
artificially promote TESTOSTERONE to increase muscle mass) . The
effects are: Increased Bone, Cartilage and Muscle Growth, Increased Blood
Glucose Levels, Increased Lipase to break down FFAs (Free Fatty Acids),
Decreased Body Fat, Increased Protein Synthesis to repair and recover.
HGH can be produced naturally by simply Sleeping and Eating well and
exercising above the LACTATE THRESHOLD. They do not have the same
side effects as STEROIDS and they are undetectable after 1 day off
YouTube - HGH - CNN News report about HGH and movie stars!
Documentary
OTHER AIDS TO PERFORMANCE
• GENE DOPING: (DNA abuse) There is already a Human GENE MAP for
performance. The fear is that athletes could be GENETICALLY
ENGINEERED SUPER ATHLETE for different events. However
knowledge of a person’s GENETIC EXPRESSION would be useful for
Training Specificity. It is banned by the IOC and by WADA. The fear is
once a gene has been manipulated it cannot be reversed. YouTube - Gene
Doping: Super Athletes in 2008 Beijing Olympics
YouTube - Gene Doping: Chapter 1
EG: Gene ACE - 11 Improves efficiency of MITOCHONDRIA which will
improve AEROBIC performance. Gene IGF -1 increases ENZYME
activation for increasing the uptake of AMINO ACIDS for strength
• BLOOD DOPING: is when the Total VOLUME of a person’s RED BLOOD
CELLS is increased. The method consists of Transfusion of Blood 4 to 6
WEEKS prior to an event. The body naturally replenishes the blood. Then
the blood is REINFUSED. This increases their overall RED BLOOD CELL /
Hb levels and increases 02 Transport YouTube - How Blood Doping Works
OTHER AIDS TO PERFORMANCE
• RECOMBINANT ERYTHROPOTEIN (RH EPO): This is a naturally
occurring HORMONE secreted by the Kidneys. It regulates Red Blood
Cells. Rh EPO is a synthetic copy of the hormone which increases Red
Blood Cell levels. It increases 02 Transport. It can be TESTED and it is
ILLEGAL. Some Fluids used by athletes to dilute the blood have also been
banned by WADA. Because RBC Basal Levels differ there is often little that
can be done unless all athletes are tested at the start of their careers
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COOLING AIDS
COOLING AIDS are used to reduce the CORE temperature of the body in
an attempt to improve performance DURING the event and to improve the
RECOVERY process after the event. Methods include ICE BATHS, cold air
EXPOSURE, FANS, COOLING JACKETS, WRAPS, ICE TOWELS. The
best methods are the most practical
PRE COOLING: Use a Cooling Jacket to reduce temperature between 8 and
30 minutes DURING WARM UPS or in the time between the warm up and
the event. This is advised before PROLONGED exercise in HOT
temperatures as it sustains INTENSITY and SPEED and reduces
THERMAL STRAIN and allows for various PACING STRATEGIES and a
SPRINT FINISH. However performances through pre cooling can improve
in lower temperatures as well. However athletes must be careful not to
OVER EXERT themselves in the initial stages of the event
POST COOLING: CRYOTHERAPY is modern techniques designed to treat
injuries. Cooling benefits the injury. RICE is however a traditional method.
How long you apply it for varies opinion.
ICE WRAPS / PACKETS: These are used as part of RICE
COOLING AIDS
• ICE BATHS: mainly used for PAIN RELIEF but they also CONSTRICT
vessels which drain blood away from muscles (removing LACTIC ACID).
When out of the bath capillaries DILATE bringing new blood back to the
muscle with 02. This improves MUSCLE FUNCTION, REDUCES MUSCLE
DAMAGE, and decreases DOMS soreness. It is a RECOVERY AID.
Normally it is done for 7 to 10 minutes at temperatures of 5-16 degrees C.
Concerns with Ice Baths are: PAIN, if used on chest it may lead to
ANGINA (constriction of Coronary Artery), Vasoconstriction will increase
Bp, Decreased efficiency of VASOCONSTRICTION, Ice BURNS
YouTube - Welsh Rugby Team in ECB Cold Ice Bath
RESISTANCE AIDS
• These can include:
• PULLEYS: These provide a form of RESISTANCE to develop STRENGTH.
Their main BENEFIT is that they apply SPECIFICITY as they more
closely REPLICATE the exact movement of the athlete in their event
YouTube - Coaching on the Swim Bench Part II.mov
YouTube - Power Bench (Swimming)
• PARACHUTES: These also provide a form of RESISTANCE to develop
STRENGTH but maintain SPECIFICITY. They are mainly used in
RUNNING events
YouTube - Track and Field - speed training: resistance bands and
parachute
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OTHER AIDS
ALCOHOL: has no real benefit to performers and in the long term it is a
DEPRESSANT and decreases MOTOR and PHYSIOLOGICAL
performance. It can however reduce anxiety, build confidence, and be a
source of CHO in the short term
CAFFEINE: This stimulates the CNS and acts like a weak amphetamine
(STIMULANT). This increases ALERTNESS, CONCENTRATION and
REACTION TIMES. It also increases the breakdown of FFAs, increases
ENERGY levels and lowers EFFORT perception. Some athletes take
caffeine tablets to delay the use of Glycogen. It is not banned but the IOC
have a LIMIT which equates to 8 strong coffees. It is also a DIURETIC
increasing DEHYDRATION
ANABOLIC STEROIDS: These are synthetic derivatives of
TESTOSTERONE. They promote BONE MATURATION and MUSCLE
MASS. Anabolic means to build up. The opposite is CATABOLIC. They are
easy to purchase on the internet and commonly used by BODY BUILDERS
ANALGESICS / ANTI INFLAMMATORY AGENTS: Pain Killers and these
range from over the counter pain killers to banned CORTISONE (unless
medically advised) They are used before an event to mask pain
MASKING AGENTS: These prevent the detection of a banned substance