Motivation in Sport
September 10, 2002
Motivation
One of the single most important themes
in all of psychology
 Widely researched in sport & exercise
 What factor(s) lead us to engage in the
behaviors that we do?
 WHY??
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Motivation - Definitions
Very complex concept--hard to define
 Force that directs
effort/energy/persistence toward
participatory choices
 The direction & intensity of behavior
(Gill, 1986)
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Motivation Terms
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Intrinsic motivation
» Motivation derived from an internal source
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Extrinsic motivation
» Motivated by some outside force
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What is the “why” of motivation
“Why’s” of Motivation
Individual differences factors
 Social context
 Interaction
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Individual Differences
Physical maturity (Malina, 1988)
 Parental beliefs about, expectations of,
sport
 Goal structures
 Cognitive maturity
 Socialization history
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Social Context
Reward structures
 Coaching styles
 Sociocultural influences (Hayashi, 1995)
 Environmental factors
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» Presence of others
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Leadership styles
Interactionist
Combined effect of personal &
situational factors
 Lewin (1936) B = f(P, E)
 Basis of all interactionist beliefs
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“Why’s” of Motivation
Individual differences factors
 Social context
 Interaction
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Optimal Motivational Profile
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Self-discipline
Enjoyment
Realistic self-confidence
Attitude toward failure
Goal-directed
All skills that may be taught & are possessed
by elite
3 important points: cognitions, effects of
rewards, affective components
Participatory Motives
Beginning point of motivation research
in sport
 Why do people stop participating or
decide to continue?
 Initial studies were not based on
theories
 Primarily conducted with youth sport
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Participation/Discontinuation
Motives
Fairly consistent set of motivational
factors
 Adolescents & children indicate that
several factors influence participation
decisions
 Minimal differences found between
factors
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» Age, gender, experience level, sport type
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Vast majority of studies conducted in US
Theory-Based Approaches to
Motivation
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Competence Motivation (Harter, 1978, 1981)
Achievement Goal (Nicholls, 1984)
Cognitive Evaluation (Deci, 1975; Deci &
Ryan, 1985)
Sport Commitment (Scanlan et al., 1993)
Expectancy-Value (Eccles & Harold, 1993)
Attribution (Weiner, 1979)
Harter’s Competence Motivation
Theory (1978, 1981)
Most commonly used motivational
theory in sport (Horn & Amorose, 1998)
 Studies have used Harter’s theory to
address affective reactions (Brustad,
1988; Brustad & Weiss, 1987), coaching
behaviors (Black & Weiss, 1992), and
parental influences (Babkes & Weiss,
1999)
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Competence Motivation Theory
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Extension of White’s Effectance
Motivation Theory (1959)
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Need to demonstrate competence in
achievement situations guides
motivational processes
Competence Motivation Theory
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Motivational processes are influenced
by a variety of factors
» individual’s self-perceptions of possibility for
future success
» perceptions of situational control
» affective reactions to participation
» significant others
» expectations for reinforcement
Competence Motivation Theory
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Three main domains for achievement:
cognitive (academic), social (peer
relationships), and physical (sports and
outdoor games)
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Demonstrated competence in different
areas may result in different impacts to
self
Competence Motivation Theory
Successful performance in valued
domains may result in feelings of
positive affect (e.g., satisfaction)
 Socializing agents play important role in
development of this positive affect and
intrinsic motivation
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» anticipate reinforcement may occur again
» encourages positive reactive feelings
Harter’s Competence Motivation
Theory (1978, 1981)
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“A bright, scholarly student with little
talent in sports may well perceive himself
as cognitively competent, but relatively
incompetent with regard to his physical
skills. To the extent that athletic prowess
is valued as his particular school...this
particular child’s perceived competence
in the area of social skills may also be
relatively low” (Harter, 1978, p.58).
Preferences for Sources of
Competence Information
Developmental shift in preference for
socializing agents occurs
 Parents are initial socializing agents
 Peers begin to increase in importance
around age 10 and continue to increase
with age
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Competence Motivation
Cognitive theory
 Significant others
 Achievement domains
 Results in different affects
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Expectancy-Value Theory
(Eccles & Harold, 1991)
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Expectancy theory of motivation (Vroom,
1964)
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Motivation comes from three types of
beliefs
Expectancy Value
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Expectancy
» Belief that one’s effort will result in effective
performance
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Instrumentality
» Belief that one’s performance will be
rewarded
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Valence
» Perceived value of the rewards to the
individual
Expectancy Value Theory
Belief that efforts will translate into
success?
 High skill level child, no longer needs to
work?
 Hard work, good performance, why still
poorly motivated?
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Parental Influence
Valence (value) determined by parents
 Influence on decisions to engage,
intensity of effort, and child’s actual
performance level
 Studies show children’s participation is
related to parental beliefs about child’s
physical competence
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Implications for Parents
Early years--determine what activities
are most valued
 Specialization years, parents facilitate &
provide opportunities
 Should create reasonable, congruent
expectations
 Failure to do so may result in anxiety &
tension
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