Welcome to Week 2 of
Functional Curriculum: SPED 534
• Updates to Wiki SPED 534– Presentations
– Assignments (Templates & Articles)
– All links should be working, please let me know if
they are not
– Article Review #1 Due October 12th Next Week,
Articles posted Remember in Assignments Section
Article Reviews
• Look at the rubric to ensure high probability of doing well.
• Make sure you complete each section with complete
sentences.
– Do not include Yes or No in your answer.
– Write that “the author did or did not……”
• Be concise, but make sure that you answer the question well.
• If you feel like the author did not explain something well, tell
me what would have been helpful to know.
• Remember that they usually have limited space which editors
make even more limited!
• Most articles have an email address for correspondence with
the author, use this for topics/tools you are interested in
– People do email the authors & authors do respond!
Treatment fidelity/integrity
• How the author(s) measured the degree to which
the intervention was implemented the way it was
designed.
• Examples: Checklist of steps conducted in an
intervention, an observer recording the presence
of the intervention
• Not to be confused with inter-rater reliability or
agreement (IOA)- this is having 2 observers
record the dependent variables (outcomes,
behaviors)
APA format for citations of Journal
Articles
Author Last Name, First Initial. Second Initial., & 2nd
Author Last Name, First Initial. Second Initial. (Year).
Title of article with only the first word capitalized
unless followed by colon: Then next word capitalized.
Name of Journal Italicized & All Major Words
Capitalized, Volume # Italicized, page #s.
Loman, S.L., Rodriguez, B.J., & Horner, R.H. (2010).
Sustainability of a targeted intervention package: First
step to success in Oregon. Journal of Emotional and
Behavioral Disorders, 18(3), 178-191.
Systematic Instruction:
Guiding Principles
• These principles guide educators in
developing instructional plans that have the
greatest likelihood of student learning:
1. Teaching meaningful and functional skills,
2. Facilitating attention to relevant stimuli,
3. Providing frequent opportunities to respond
4. Providing a positive learning environment
Halle et al., 2004
Teaching Applications
Stimulus Control
Prompting
Fading
Shaping
Chaining
Teaching is…

Teaching is the process of arranging
instructional stimuli that result in behavior
change for the learner.



Teaching requires the establishment of a
learning context.
Teaching requires behavior change on the part
of the learner.
Teaching students to respond to specific
stimuli is a teacher’s basic job.
Basic elements of behavior analysis
Behavior (response)
 Antecedent (antecedent stimuli)
 Consequence
 Setting event


These describe the behavior within an
environmental context

Summary statement or testable hypothesis
Nine Principles of Human Behavior
Stimulus Control
 Positive Reinforcement
 Negative Reinforcement
 Positive Punishment
 Negative Punishment
 Extinction
 Transfer
 Generalization
 Maintenance

Stimulus Control

Stimulus control refers to change in the
likelihood of a response when a
stimulus is presented.


The stimulus is a signal that if the response
is performed, a predictable outcome
(consequence) is likely.
If a person responds one way in the
presence of a stimulus and another in its
absence, than that stimulus is said to
“control” behavior.

A traffic light is an example
Stimulus Control Terms
Stimulus: Any event, action or object
perceptible to the senses.
 Discriminative Stimulus (Sd):



Any stimulus that signals that a specific response is
more likely to be followed by a reinforcer (S+) or
punisher (S-).
Delta Stimulus (S ):

Any stimulus that signals that a specific response is
unlikely to be followed by a reinforcer.
Sd or (S-delta): ??

A baby learns that saying “mama” is:



(a) reinforced in the presence of the adult with
glasses and curly hair &
(b) usually results in the disappearance of the
adult with a beard.
For the Response, “Mama”


Sd= __?
S-delta= ___?
Identify the Discriminative Stimulus (Sd)

1st grader says “went” in the presence of a
flashcard with the letters W-E-N-T, which
results in teacher praise.

1st grader says “went” in the presence of
the letters C-A-M-E, which does not result
in teacher praise.
Why is stimulus control important?
For each example define a response and its controlling stimulus
Reading
 Math
 Social initiations
 Joining a playground game
 Getting help from an adult
 Getting a cookie at snack
 Following the instruction to “line up”

Discrimination Learning

Discrimination based on relatively informal or imprecise
patterns of reinforcement usually develops slowly and is
often imperfect.

Ex. Babies calling all men with beard “daddy”




Student says went when sees “w-a-n-t” or “w-e-t”
Stipulation
Importance of teaching range of positive and negative
examples.
Salient features of stimulus should be emphasized

Often times students learn based on some other feature than
what wanting them to focus on

Ex. Student says the word “went” because that flashcard has a
smudge on it, or the word “came” because it starts with a C.
How to develop stimulus control
(Note what you ADD to the natural context)

Begin by pretest, then defining (a) the
new response[R], (b) the stimulus that
should control the response[S1], and
(c) the natural reward [Sr+].





Pretest to document absence of Sd  R
Present the stimulus (S1)
Prompt the new response (R)
Deliver a reward (Sr+) + extra reward
Withhold the reward when either
 R1 occurs when S1 has not be presented, or
 R1 does not occur when S1 is presented.
Stimulus control and teaching
For any skill, teach a) what, b) when, c)
why.
 What = the new response (skill)
 When = the stimulus that signals when to
perform the new response
 Why = what is the likely consequence
(reward)

Examples:
Target Response/Discriminative Stimulus
T ---> /t/
( b --> /b/, /d/ )

---> “triangle” (
 Child cries --> parent picks up and
comforts
 Smile --> social initiation
 Student raises hand -> teacher calls on
student

)
Building Stimulus Control

Teach saying “thank you” when
someone gives you something.



Test to determine if skill exists
Identify “pre-requisites”
Define “natural” behavioral elements


What do you add to teach




receive --> “thank you” --> “you’re welcome”
Add prompt (“say thank you”)
Add reward (“excellent job saying thank you”)
Multiple opportunities to practice (fade
extras)
Test to determine if skill is learned
Teaching and Stimulus Control

Define the naturally occurring pattern

Setting Event -> Stimulus -> Response -> Consequence

Define what you will “add” to assist learning.

Setting Event -> Stimulus -> Response -> Consequence
Prompt
Extra Reward
or Correction
Teaching and Stimulus Control:
Examples

Setting Event -> Stimulus -> Response->
Consequence

None
-> “car”
info from reading

What do you add?
-> /car/
->
Consequences
Setting Event -> Stimulus -> Response -> Consequence
(Contingency)
Consequences follow a target response
 Contingent consequences are delivered
only after the target response occurs.
 Consequences affect the future likelihood
of the response.



Rewarding consequences increase the
likelihood of the target response.
Aversive consequences decrease the likelihood
of the target response.
Consequences

There are 5 major classes of
consequences






Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Positive punishment
Negative punishment
Extinction
To determine the type/class of
consequence:


Examine the effect on future occurrence of
the behavior (increase or decrease?)
Examine the action involved in the
consequence (give/remove/withhold)
Consequences
Action
Effect on Future Occurrence of Behavior
INCREASES (+)
DECREASES (-)
Give (+)
Positive Reinforcement
Positive Punishment
Remove (-)
Negative Reinforcement
Negative Punishment
Withhold
Extinction
Consequences
Examples (target response is underlined)
Over time Jim (age 9) has become less
likely to push his way to the front of the
line during recess since the teachers took
away recess time for each instance of
pushing.
 Elaine volunteered answers in class when
the teacher asked for volunteers, but
about 25% of the time she would be
wrong, and the teacher would scowl and
tell her she was wrong. She now
volunteers less often.

Consequences
Examples (target response is underlined)
• Over time, Darin (age 5) has become more
likely to line up when given the instruction
“time to line up” as a result of contingent
praise from Ms. Dawson when he lines up.
• Darin screamed, and Ms. Dawson said
“Darin you be quiet.” He immediately
stopped screaming and smiled. Over time,
however, his rate of screaming in class has
increased.
Consequences
Examples (target response is underlined)
• Over time Ellen’s talking out in class
decreased during instructional presentations
as a result of everyone ignoring her talkouts (previously she received a lot of peer
attention).
• Over time Ellen has become more on task
during independent seat work periods since
Mr. Evan’s started giving out “Worker
Rewards” for students who were on-task.
Consequences
Examples (target response is underlined)
• Over time Jim (age 9) has become less
likely to push his way to the front of the line
during recess since the teachers took away
recess time for each instance of pushing.
• Elaine volunteered answers in class when
the teacher asked for volunteers, but about
25% of the time she would be wrong, and
the teacher would scowl and tell her she
was wrong. She now volunteers less often.
Consequences
Examples (target response is underlined)
• Over time Elaine was more likely to scream
when given a math assignment as a result of
the assignment being removed as soon as
she screamed.
• Tyron became more likely to become quiet,
look down and whimper when other
children would talk to him as a result of
other children leaving him alone when he
engaged in these behaviors.
Consequences
Examples (target response is underlined)
• Gwen’s attendance at choir has decreased as
a result of Ms. Emerson’s repeated
congratulations on Gwen’s “wonderful
voice.”
• Eric (age 8) has become more likely to tease
and taunt Angelissa even though Angelissa
consistently hits or yells at Eric when he
teases her.
Effective Instruction of New
Behaviors
Teaching New Behaviors can be Thought of as
Developing Stimulus Control
Errorless Learning
 Prompts and Cues
 Response Shaping
 Chaining

Effective Instruction:
We Must Determine the Nature of the
Problem
Focus
1
Behavior not in repertoire of student
-SKILL DEFICIT
Teach HOW
Student can do behavior but does not
-PERFORANCE DEFICIT
teach WHEN & WHY
Does the student not know how or do
they know how but choose not to?
2
Discrimination Learning

Discrimination based on relatively informal or imprecise
patterns of reinforcement usually develops slowly and is
often imperfect.

Ex. Babies calling all men with beard “daddy”




Student says went when sees “w-a-n-t” or “w-e-t”
Stipulation
Importance of teaching range of positive and negative
examples.
Salient features of stimulus should be emphasized

Often times students learn based on some other feature than
what wanting them to focus on

Ex. Student says the word “went” because that flashcard has a
smudge on it, or the word “came” because it starts with a C.
Errorless learning
Definition

Using prompts to preclude a student from
making an incorrect response
Use

when students are not learning effectively and
efficiently with other procedures
Rationale
1
2
3
4
effective
positive teacher/student interaction
fewer inappropriate social behaviors
students learn little from repeated errors
SUCCESS BEGETS SUCCESS AND FAILURE BEGETS
FAILURE
Errorless learning


Train discrimination without errors
(shaping stimulus control)
Refined form of decreasing prompts




Alterations of features of the stimulus (Sd)
OR Stimulus property
Student’s name on white card other student’s
name on black card.
Card gradually darkened.
No incorrect choices and discriminated on
relevant stimulus properties.
Error Correction

When errors occur, correct immediately
with minimal feedback

Provide a second opportunity to respond
correctly

Reinforce (reward) immediately!

Must be explicit / specific.
Teaching Applications:
Prompts
 Defined:
 Any
antecedent stimulus ADDED to the
presentation that increases the likelihood of
correct responding.
 Examples:
 Verbal, gesture, physical, embedded (visual,
auditory)
 Modeling
 Precorrection
Types of Prompts

Verbal Prompts




Visual



Rules: “Nouns are a person, place, or thing”
Instructions—when specific
Hints
Pictures, examples of correct answers, number lines,
multiplication charts, visual schedules, diagram of steps,
scripts
Modeling
Physical Prompting/ Guidance

Partial, Full
Prompts increase teaching efficiency

Use extra cues to increase number of
correct responses
Increased Responses=
 Increased Reinforcement=
 Increased Speed of Learning Behavior

What makes a good prompt?
Increases likelihood of correct responding
 Focuses attention on relevant features of task (Sd)
 Ease of delivery
 Ease of removal across trials
 Good prompts are determined by the demands of the
task AND the presenting skills of the learner.
 As weak as possible (least intrusive)
 Should be faded as rapidly as possible

Guidelines for Selecting
Prompts
1) Select the least intrusive, effective
prompt
2) Combine prompts if necessary
3) select natural prompts and those related
to the behavior
4) Provide only after students are attending
5) Provide in a supportive, instructive
manner before response
6) Fade as soon as possible
7) Plan fading procedures beforehand
Prompt Examples:
What prompts might be useful?
Natural Sd  Target Behavior  Consequence
 (Prompt)

Teaching cursive writing
 Teaching swallowing
 Teaching Carl how to ask to enter a wall ball game.
 Teaching Emily to move from one task to another
without help.
 Teaching Phil to wait at snack without grabbing food.

Fading

Defined: Stimulus Fading


The gradual reduction or removal of a prompt.
Fading is a process for transferring stimulus control.
As soon as you decide to use
reinforcement you need to begin planning
how to get rid of it -- fading
 Examples:




Change in physical features (dashed lines)
Change in specificity of verbal prompts (“pick up the
screwdriver”…to… “what’s next”)
Time delay (“Prompt+Sd”….to… “Prompt….Sd”)
Establishing Stimulus Control

Time delay:

begin with a prompt that works and then increase the
DELAY between presentation of the target stimulus and
the added prompt





fixed
Progressive
Sd +Prompt  response
Sd ….Prompt  response
Sd ….response
Fading Prompts

Increasing Assistance (Least-to-Most Prompts)—start with
least intrusive and add more intrusive if necessary.

Graduated Guidance (Hand-over-hand, physical
guidance)—reducing full guidance to “shadowing”.

Time Delay—wait several seconds before prompting to
allow student to respond.

Decreasing Assistance (Most-to-Least Prompts)—move to
less intrusive prompt when behavior occurs reliably
How would you fade these
prompts?
Verbal prompt “move it to the tens” during two digit
addition to prompt carrying.
 Verbal prompt “ask nicely” when prompting Elsie to
ask for toys/food, etc.
 Physical prompt “touch on arm” as student points to
communication board.
 Gesture prompt, pointing to the correct color when
asked to touch “yellow, etc”
 Embedded prompt, dashed lines for writing

Teaching Applications:
Shaping


Defined

Teaching new behaviors through differential reinforcement
of successive approximations of correct responding.

Differential reinforcement for shaping means that
responses that meet a certain criterion are reinforced, while
those that do not meet the criterion are not.
The Sd and reward are constant. What changes is the
rule for delivering the reward. The goal is to improve
the precision of the new skill.
Response Shaping
1. Behavior is present, but not fluent in the
presence of the “signal”
2. Focus on CONSEQUENCES
-requires powerful reinforcers
-use differential reinforcement
3. Systematic reinforcement of successive
approximations toward the target
behavior
-specify dimensions of the target/goal
behavior
-reinforce slight improvements/changes
-takes time
-avoid practicing errors
Establishing Stimulus Control: Teaching
New Behaviors
Shaping:
Students learn new things when a teacher “shapes” an
existing response into the desired behavior.
Advantages of shaping:



faster than waiting for a correct response
learner succeeds at a high rate
still kind of slow because you are waiting for the
learner
Designing Successful Shaping Programs
Identify the terminal behavior (end result)
 Identify the initial behavior
 Identify intermediate behaviors
 Determine the size of steps toward the
goal
 Reinforce successive approximations of
the behavior
 Monitor progress


Example student accessing a switch
Shaping Example

Problem behavior: Students are off-task about
80% of the time when working with a partner.
Off-topic conversation occurs and work is not
completed.

Define the terminal behavior.

Define the initial behavior.

What will our “successive approximations” be?
Shaping:
How would you use shaping to..

Develop skill of saying “thank you” (in different
ways) to peers.

Develop skill of reading third grade material at 150
words correct per minute.

Develop ability of a pre-schooler to stay in morning
circle for 10 min without screaming
Chaining

A procedure to teach complex skills.




Requires a “task” that is organized into a sequence of
“responses.” Each of the responses serves as a “link” in “chain
of behavior”
Main idea


Reinforce combinations of simple behaviors so they become an
integrated, whole.
Based on “task analysis” logic
The reward at the end of a chain will maintain all the other
responses in the chain. The goal is to teach that each step
has an Sd-> R. Each R generates a new Sd until the final step
which ends with a Sr+ (reward).
Two approaches


Forward chaining
Backward chaining
Forward Chaining
1.
2.
3.
4.
Student does FIRST STEP, teacher does
the rest of chain.
Keep adding steps until student
completes entire chain.
Reinforce student for completing the
desired number of steps requested by
the teacher.
Useful when prompting is difficult.
Backward Chaining
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Teacher does all but last step, student
completes LAST STEP.
Keep adding steps until student
completes entire chain
Reinforce student for completing the
desired number steps requested bythe
teacher.
Often used with functional skills
Student can perform steps with prompts.
Effective Instruction
“
“Holding a student responsible for assigned material
is not teaching, even though it is a large part of
modern school and university practice.”
B.F. Skinner, 1968
Understanding the Stages of
Learning

Acquisition


Fluency


(develop speed, accuracy)
Maintenance


(build initial stimulus control)
(durability of skill across time)
Generalization

(performance of behavior under
appropriate, non-trained conditions)
Stages of Learning

Acquisition: new at task, instruction
crucial, student not accurate

Fluency: accurate and increase in speed

Maintenance: skills retained over time
Generalization: skill in new contexts
(discriminate)
 Adaptation: modify skill for new situation

Acquisition

Teaching discriminations





Teach what to do, and when to do it.



Positive examples
Maximally different negative example
Minimally different negative example
Positive examples
The behavior
The signal (discriminative stimulus)
Prompting, fading, shaping, rewarding
Learner characteristics at acquisition
stage
Student performs none or up to about half
of the task
 May need to cue or prompt initiation
 May need a low-error prompt system
 Possibly break skill down into smaller
components
 Give frequent positive feedback

Fluency


Improved rate of responding
But fluency is more than just rate





Fluid motions
Absence of pausing
Speed in decision-making
Rhythmic
Build fluency through practice


Math facts, chromatic scale, second language
Fluency is an index of the power of stimulus
control that has been established.
Fluent learner characteristics







Student performs more than half of the task
Add realistic speed and quality criteria
Add to skill to make it more functional (e.g.,
monitors speed & quality)
Enrich skill with communication choice, or social
behaviors
Drop all intrusive requests
Fade intrusive prompt
Shift attention to natural cues and prompts
 Thin out reinforcement

Shift to natural reinforcement
Maintenance
Stability of responding over time
 Variables that affect maintenance





Building fluency with initial instruction (level of
stimulus control
Regular opportunity to perform
On-going access to contingent rewards
(reinforcement)
Access to competing alternative behaviors that are
contingently reinforced.
Learners at the maintenance stage






Student performs more than half of the task
“Schedule it” and expect student to perform
Add to the skill to make it more functional (e.g.,
initiates, prepares)
Enrich skill with communication, choice, social
behaviors
Drop all intrusive requests
Fade intrusive prompts
Shift attention to natural cues
 Thin out reinforcement
 Shift to natural reinforcement

Generalization

Defined:



Target behavior is performed under
conditions beyond those used during
instruction.
Generalization can be desired (e.g.
“greeting skills”) or undesired (saying /b/ in
the presence of “d”).
Build generalized skills through selection
and sequencing of teaching examples
Characteristics of learners at the
generalization stage









Student performs more than half of the task
Vary settings
Vary instructors, supervisors, others
Vary materials
Vary conditions and teach problem solving
Enrich skill with communication, choice
Drop all intrusive requests
Fade intrusive prompt, reinforcement
Shift attention to natural cues & natural
reinforcement
Percent Correct
Stages of Learning
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Adaptation
Generalization
Maintenance
Fluency
Acquisition
0
10
20
Trials
30
Review

4 basic elements of behavior


9 principles of behavior


Response, Antecedent stimulus, Consequence,
Setting Event
Stimulus control, Positive reinforcement, Negative
reinforcement, Positive punishment, Negative
punishment, Transfer, Generalization,
Maintenance
Applications to teaching

Prompting, Fading, Shaping, Task Analysis,
Design of Instruction, Instructional objectives,
Behavioral objectives.
Examples

Teaching reading in second grade

Objective: Hailey will read at 100 words
correct per min with the Open Court text.

Acquisition:
Fluency:
Maintenance:
Generalization:



Example

Decrease problem behavior






Objective: Mikai will not hit, kick or bite
others on the playground.
Mikai will play cooperatively with others on
the playground without hitting, kicking, or
biting for 5 consecutive days.
Acquisition:
Fluency:
Maintenance:
Generalization:
Instructional Activities (acquisition)

Direct instruction


Systematic teaching of target skills: reading,
math, social-behavioral skills
MODEL  LEAD TEST
direct instruction (“little di”): Steps







Gain attention … ”Everyone eyes on me.”
Review previous material to:
Check for understanding to ensure students remember
How previous material is relevant to new material
State goal
State Expectations Positively
New content in small steps
Explicit Instruction, range of examples, logical sequence)
Model
Demonstration of the skill
Lead
Prompted (guided) practice
Unprompted practice
Test
Independent practice
Instructional Concepts
State expectations positively
 Explicit instruction
 Range of examples
 Logical sequencing

Instructional Concept #1
State Expectations Positively
Teach them what you do want them to
do
Ineffective
Instruction
• Sets the
occasion for
student
failure
Teaching Behaviors
Behavior:
Peer Relations







No elbowing
others
No kicking
No hitting
No pinching
No biting
No scratching
Etc. . .
Academic Skill:
Addition







2+2 is not
2+2 is not
2+2 is not
2+2 is not
2+2 is not
2+2 is not
Etc. . .
1
2
3
5
6
7
Teaching Behaviors
Behavior:
Peer Relations
Hands and feet
to self
or
 Respect others
Academic Skill:
Addition


2+2 = 4
Instructional Concept #2
Explicit Instruction
Be Direct
What is the Best Way to Facilitate
Academic Success?
Should we teach, facilitate, or just support?
?
?
?
Teaching - teacher structures a lesson,
models skills, and leads students through
practice or key skills.
Facilitate - teachers sets up activities
wherein students discover key skills.
Support - teachers simply oversee
students and offer support for whatever
they do.
Explicit Instruction
Large-Scale Research and Meta Analyses
Direct Comparison Meta-Analysis
Favor explicit instruction
87.3 %
Tie
0.6 %
Favor other methods
12.1 %
 Students of all ages and abilities
 Academic and social behaviors
 Especially effective with low performers
 Very successful with disadvantaged

Instructional Concept #3
Range of Examples
Show all the possibilities
Effective Instruction
Effective instruction is:
Effective example selection and
sequencing
 Task analysis
 Facilitate success
 Delivered at the level of the student

INEFFECTIVE INSTRUCTION

INEFFECTIVE MODELS
Walk on green
Walk on green
Don’t walk
on red

INEFFECTIVE PRACTICE

-Walk on green
Don’t walk


on red

TESTING OUTCOMES


Green light =
Walk
NO LIGHT =
?
=?
Instructional Concept #4
Logical Sequencing
Juxtapose positive and negative
examples
INEFFECTIVE INSTRUCTION
INEFFECTIVE MODELS
= osh
= osh
= osh
INEFFECTIVE PRACTICE
-
= osh
TESTING OUTCOMES
Osh = ?
= osh
Instructional Sequence
Presentation - tell and model
 Recitation - student Q & A
 Individual Work - with teacher feedback
-make sure students get it
 Group work
-activities, experiments, etc.
-chance to discover application to real
world
 Test
- Make sure they have skill fluency

Instructional Sequence
Model: Structured, Clear
Be direct with multiple examples & nonexamples
 Lead: High levels of opportunities to
respond (OTR), success



Individual Work - with clear teacher feedback
-make sure students get it
Group work
-activities, experiments, etc.
-chance to discover application to real
world
Instructional Methods

Students with intellectual disabilities learn
best when instructional methods are
explicit, systematic, and derived from
empirical research such as the following
practices (Heward, 2003)
Heward, 2003




Assess each student’s present levels of
performance to help identify and prioritize
most important instructional targets.
Define and task-analyze the new knowledge
or skills to be learned
Design instructional methods and activities so
the student has frequent opportunities for
active student response in the form of guided
and independent practice
Use mediated scaffolding (provide and then
fade prompts so student can respond to
natural occurring stimuli)
Heward, 2003 continued




Provide systematic consequences for student
performance in the form of contingent
reinforcement, instructional feedback, and
error correction.
Incorporate fluency-building activities into
lessons
Incorporate strategies for promoting
generalization and maintenance of newly
learned skills
Conduct direct and frequent measurements of
student performance, and use those data to
instructional decisions.
Specialized Teaching Strategies

Visual modality strategies


Visual supports, visual schedules, activity
boards, rule scripts, video modeling,
Task analysis & chaining

Forward, backward, interrupted
Discrete teaching trials
 Prompting systems, time-delay,
 Antecedent & Consequence strategies

Functional Communication Training

Carr, E.G., & Durand, V.M. (1985).
Reducing behavior problems through
functional communication training. Journal
of Applied Behavior Analysis, 18(2), 111126.
TEACCH
Treatment and Education of Autistic and
Communication related handicapped
CHildren
-http://www.teacch.com/
-Established in the early 1970s by Eric
Schopler
-Structured Teaching Model
-Physical organization, scheduling, visual
(picture and color) approach, use of
reinforcement strategies

Discrete Trial Training (DTT)
Strategy based on ABA principles
 Breaking skills down into smaller
components and teaching those smaller
sub-skills individually
 Mass Trials and Repeated Practice
 Use of prompting when necessary

Leaf, R., & McEachin, J. (1999). A Work In Progress. New York, New York: DRL Books
Green, G., Luce, S., & Maurice, C. (1996). Behavioral Intervention for Young Children
with Autism: A Manual for
Parents and Professionals. Austin, Texas: Pro-Ed.
Smith, T. (2001). Discrete Trial Training in the Treatment of Autism. Focus on Autism
and Other Developmental
Disabilities, 16(2), 86-92.
“Discrete Trial”
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Initial Instruction (“Touch your nose”)
A prompt or cue given by the teacher to
help the child respond correctly (Teacher
points to child’s nose)
A response given by the child (Child
touches nose)
An appropriate consequence (“Nice job
touching your nose” + sticker)
Pause between consecutive trials (1-5
seconds before next trial)
Pivotal Response Training &
Verbal Behavior Approach

“How to Teach Pivotal Behaviors to
Children with Autism: A Training Manual”


http://www.users.qwest.net/~tbharris/prt.htm
Barbera, M. & Rasmussen, T. (2007). The
Verbal Behavior Approach: How to Teach
Children with Autism and Related
Disorders. Philadelphia, PA: Kingsley
Publishing.
Cue
(opportunity
to respond)
Response/
Behavior
Consequence
Pause
DTT
T provides
instructional
cue
(prompting
may be
needed)
Student
Responds
Teacher praises
and give child a
positive
reinforcer
There is a
pause
EX
1. Student
indicates
interest in
chips
2. Teacher
says “Give
me a car”
Student
gives car
to teacher
Teacher praises
student and
gives student a
chip
Student eats
chip and
teacher
waits a few
seconds
before next
cue

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2afb4i7L
MJc
Cue
(opportunity to
respond)
Response/
Behavior
Consequence
Pause
PRT 1. S indicates
interest
2. Teacher
withholds
access to
desired
item/activity
Student
Responds
S gets desired
item
There is a
pause
EX
Student
imitates the
word car.
Teacher gives
student access to
car
Student plays
with car
1. Student
reaches for
car.
2. Teacher
withholds
and says,
“Car”


http://www.asatonline.org/intervention/vide
os.htm
Picture Exchange Communication System
(PECS)
◦ Six Phases



http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZP48lxnN
dHM
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tr3lQXNEc
ps&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZrELOVWn
p28&feature=related

Frost, L. A. & Bondy, A.S. (1994). The Picture
exchange communication system: Training
manual. Cherry Hill, NJ: Pyramid Educational
Consultants.