PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING
K Everitt 2007
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Fitness Training
Physiological Factors
Psychological Factors
Acquisition of Skill
Technological Developments
Safety and Risk Assessment.
K Everitt 2007
Fitness Training
WARM UP AND COOL DOWN
Warming up and cooling down are vital to every training session.
WARM UP
• Gradually gets your body ready for exercise
• Increases the body temperature and blood flow to the muscles
• Stretches the muscles, mobilises the joints and increases range of movement
• Concentrates the mind on training
COOL DOWN
• Gets your body back to normal state
• Helps replace the O2 debt in the muscles, getting rid of any lactic acid, which could
cause muscle stiffness later on
• Gets rid of extra blood in your muscles to prevent pooling in your veins. This can
make you feel dizzy and weak if exercise is stopped suddenly
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TRAINING PRINCIPLES
There are 4 training principles:
SPECIFICITY
Every person will need a different training programme because we are all different.
The correct part of the body needs to be trained – there is no point making a weightlifter
run 5 miles a day, as this will not improve his strength.
Train to the correct level – if someone is unfit, do not start them with a 5 mile run.
PROGRESSION
Gradually increase the amount of training that’s done when the body has got used to the
previous training.
OVERLOAD
To improve, you must make your body work harder than it usually would, so you need to
push yourself beyond the threshold. You can do this by increasing frequency, intensity
and duration of training.
REVERSABILITY
If you stop training, your fitness levels will drop. It takes much longer to gain fitness than
it does to lose it.
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TRAINING PROGRAMMES
A training programme must suit the person it is for.
Many programmes are used using FITT
Frequency – how often you should exercise.
Intensity – how hard you exercise.
Time – how long you should exercise.
Type – what exercise you should use.
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WEIGHT TRAINING
This improves muscle strength and tone.
There are two types of weight training:
Isometric - muscles contract but there is no
movement. Sit with your back to the wall and
your knees bent at 45* and hold it.
Advantages - develops static strength, its quick,
cheap and easy to do
Disadvantages – no good if you have a heart
problem, as blood flow is reduced to the
muscles.
CIRCUIT TRAINING
This uses lots of different exercises. There
can be between 8-15 stations, and at
each one you do a specific activity for
a set amount of time.
Advantages – less boring due to the
variety of exercises, easily adaptable,
can include weight and aerobic training
Disadvantages – can take time to set up,
can get overcrowded if too busy
Isotonic – muscles contract and shorten to
produce a movement. Pull ups
Advantages – easily adaptable to most sports,
strengthens the muscle throughout the
range of movement
Disadvantages – muscle can become sore due
to the stress
To overload, do more repetitions at each
station, complete the circuit quicker,
rest less between stations, or repeat
the circuit
To overload, use heavier weights, or lift more
times.
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CONTINUOUS TRAINING
Involves exercising at a constant rate, like
running or cycling. It usually means
working at 60-90% VO2 max for an
hour.
Advantages – needs only small amount or
no equipment, good for aerobic fitness
and using up body fat
Disadvantages – can be boring, does not
improve sprinting, so not ideal for
games.
To overload, increase duration, distance,
speed or frequency.
FARTLEK TRAINING
This can be made as easy or as hard as
needed. It involves changing the
intensity and type of exercise without
stopping. Part of a fartlek run could be
to sprint for 10 seconds, jog for 20
seconds, repeated 4 times.
Advantages – good for sports that need
different paces like football and
hockey, easily changed to suit an
individual.
Disadvantages – difficult to see how hard
the person is training, too easy to skip
the hard bits.
To overload, increase times or speeds of
each bit, or make the terrain more
difficult (running uphill)
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INTERVAL TRAINING
Fixed patterns of fast and slow exercise
are used in interval training. Each
repetition of the pattern is called a rep,
and you must finish a set before you
can rest.
Advantages – can mix aerobic and
anaerobic exercise, its easy to see
when athlete isn’t trying.
Disadvantages – hard to keep going, can
be a bit boring.
To overload, increase reps or sets, or
spend less time resting between sets.
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FITNESS TESTS
If you have a high aerobic fitness level, then it means that compared to others your heart rate will be
lower when resting and exercising, you can exercise for longer without feeling tired, and you
can use up more O2 when you exercise.
To measure you heart rate, place you first two fingers on one of you pulse points:
1.
Carotid artery – this is on you neck, to the one side
2.
Radial artery – this is on your wrist, by the base of your thumb
Count the beats over 15 seconds, then multiply that number by 4 to get beats per minute. That’s your
heart rate.
There are 3 main tests for aerobic fitness:
HARVARD STEP TEST
30 step-ups a minute for 5 minutes.
Rest for 1 minute, then take your pulse to calculate your heart rate
12-MINUTE RUN
Run around a track as many times as you can for 12 minutes. The further you run, the fitter you are.
MULTISTAGE FITNESS TEST
Run shuttles between 2 lines 20m apart.
Start on the first bleep. The time between the bleeps gets shorter, so you have to run faster.
When you drop out, your level and number of completed shuttles are recorded.
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Endurance tests
This can test the endurance of different muscles, seeing how many times you can do an
exercise. Sit ups or press ups.
Strength tests
A dynamometer measures hand and forearm strength.
Speed tests
30m sprint test measures your speed over a certain distance
Flexibility test
Sit and reach test measure flexibility in the hamstrings and back
Power test
Vertical jump and standing long jump measures your power in your legs
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Physiological Factors
AGE
Strength
You do not reach your maximum strength until you are
around 20-that’s when you are fully grown
In your 20s and 30s it is still easy to build muscle. After
this, protein levels and muscle mass falls, and
strength declines, so its harder to build muscle.
O2 capacity
This falls as you get older, so less O2 can be taken to
the muscles
Injury and disease
Older people are more prone to injury, and it takes them
longer to recover from one
Older people generally suffer from more diseases
Reaction time
These get slower as you get older
Flexibility
You are most flexible in your teens
Experience
This is a vital factor in sport
As you get older, you become more experienced
GENDER
Competitions usually split men and women,
along with young and old.
Men and women have different bodies
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Men have longer, heavier bone structure
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Women have a wider, fatter pelvis (better for
child birth)
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Women generally have more body fat than
men
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The menstrual cycle can affect performance
Girls mature earlier than boys
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Girls reach physical maturity at 16 or 17,
whereas boys mature at around 20
Men are generally stronger
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Men have bigger muscles, due to higher
testosterone levels
Women are generally more flexible
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This is partly due to them having less
muscle.
This is why there are age divisions in competitions. It
would be unfair to expect a 50 year old to compete
against a 25 year old.
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SOMATOTYPES
Somatotype means the shape of your body. This can affect your suitability for certain sports.
There are 3 basic somatotypes:
ECTOMORPH
Narrow shoulders, hips and chest
Not much fat or muscle
Long, thin arms and legs
THIN - high jump, long distance running
Thin face, high forehead
ENDOMORPH
Wide hips, but narrow shoulders
Lot of fat on body, arms and legs
DUMPY – wrestling, shot putting
Ankles and wrists slim
MESOMORPH
Wide shoulders, narrow hips
Muscular body
MUSCULAR – swimming, gymnastics
Strong arms and thighs
Not much body fat
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DRUGS
DRUGS
ALCOHOL
• Affects coordination, speech and
judgment
• Slows reactions
• Makes muscles tired more quickly
• Eventually damages liver, kidneys,
heart, muscles, brain and the digestive
and immune system
SMOKING
• Causes nose, throat and chest
irritations
• Makes you short of breath
• Increases the risk of developing heart
disease, lung cancer, bronchitis.
• Every single cigarette damages your
body
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PERFORMANCE ENHANCING DRUGS
These are banned by the International Olympic
Committee (IOC)
STIMULANTS
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Speed up your reactions
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Increase aggression
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Make you feel less pain, which can make
you train too hard
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Lead to high blood pressure, heart and liver
failure and strokes
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They are addictive
ANABOLIC AGENTS (STERIODS)
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Increase muscle size
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Allow you to train harder
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Cause high blood pressure, heart disease,
infertility and cancer
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Women may grow facial and body hair, and
their voices may deepen
PERFORMANCE ENHANCING DRUGS
NARCOTIC ANALGESICS
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Kill pain so injury and fatigue don’t interfere
with performance, and make you train too
hard
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They are addictive, with unpleasant
withdrawal symptoms
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Lead to constipation and low blood pressure
PEPTIDE HORMONES
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Most have similar effects as steroids
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Cause strokes, and abnormal growth
DIURETICS
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Make you urinate, causing weight loss
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Mask traces of other drugs in your system
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Cause cramp and dehydration
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The use of the following drugs are restricted by IOC:
BETA BLOCKERS
• Medicine that lowers heart rate, steadys shaking hands, and reduces anxiety
• Banned in sports where they may give an advantage, such as shooting, snooker
ALCOHOL
• Sometimes used in snooker or shooting to calm nerves
LOCAL ANAESTHETICS
• Reduce pain, but may be allowed for medical reasons
MARIJUNA
• Similar effect to alcohol
CORTICOSTERIODS
• Reduce pain and inflammation from injury
• Serious side effects, including diabetes, depression and weakening of the bones
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DOPE TESTING
Can be done at any time.
Urine samples are spilt into 2 bottles A and
B
A sample is tested. If drugs are found, B
sample is tested to double check
Refusing to give a sample is as serious as
failing a test
If an athlete is found guilty of taking
banned drugs, they are banned from
competing, sometimes forever.
BLOOD DOPING
This is used to simulate high altitude
training, without going to high altitudes.
Red blood cells are taken out of the
athlete, so their body makes more to
replace them
Before a competition, the red blood cells
are injected back into the athlete, so
that more O2 can be carried around
their body.
This is banned by IOC
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Psychological Factors
PERSONALITY
People with different personalities prefer different
sports. You can use the words introverted
and extroverted to describe people’s
personalities.
INTROVERTED – tend to choose more of these
things for their sport
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Tend to get more nervous
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Individual performances
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Concentration
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Precision
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Less pain
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Calm
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Self-motivation
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Thinking
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Intricate skills
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Less arousal
PERSONALITY
EXTROVERT – tend to choose more of these
things
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Excitement
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Activity
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Team involvement
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Arousal
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Speed
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More pain
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Simple skills
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Less concentration
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Less thinking
AGGRESSION can have good and bad effects.
It must be controlled.
There are 2 types:
INDIRECT – hitting objects (tennis balls)
DIRECT – actual physical contact (rugby)
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MENTAL PREPARATION
You need to be mentally fit to perform well at most sports.
MOTIVATION is how keen you are to do something, the force that drives you on, your
desire to succeed. It can be INTRINSIC or EXTRINSIC.
INTRINSIC – this comes from inside you. You play the sport because you want to do well
at it and you enjoy it.
EXTRINSIC – this comes from outside. You may want to do well for a reward, such as
money or publicity.
AROUSAL is about being excited, keen, and mentally ready to perform a task. If your
arousal level is too low, you will not perform at your best because you probably aren’t
that excited. If your arousal level is too high, you become anxious and nervous, so
you won’t be able to give your best performance. If your arousal level is just right, you
will be determined and ready, so should perform well.
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SKILLS
A skill is something you learn to do, you can’t be born with it.
Skills can be either basic or complex
BASIC
• Running, jumping, throwing
• Can be transferable across many activities
• Tend to be learnt at an early age
COMPLEX
• More specific to certain sport, like taking a penalty in football
• Take more practice to master, and have more room for improvement
Skills can also be open or closed
OPEN - these are affected by external factors, such as where the ball is, where the goal
is
CLOSED – these are hardly affected by the environment, as the same movements are
usually made, like in darts the same movement is made.
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FEEDBACK
This is the most important part of the learning process. Your brain looks at the result of
the output, and registers the information to enable you to do better next time.
There are 3 main ways of getting feedback:
Intrinsic – you can feel how you kicked the ball
Extrinsic – you get verbal feedback off a coach, teacher or friend
You can see the output. How successful was it? Did it go where I aimed it?
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Safety
There are many ways of staying safe whilst taking part in sport. Its important to
make sure you are using the correct technique, wearing the correct types of
clothing, have warmed up and cooled down, and are playing by the rules.
Many sport have protective clothing that should be worn when playing. In
football, shin pads are expected to be worn, mouth guards in hockey and
rugby.
There are also many rules in the sports that are there purely for health and
safety reasons. No two-footed tackling in football, no tackling above the
neck in rugby, no contact in netball.
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SPORTING INJURIES
There are 2 different types of injury you can get from
sport:
CHRONIC
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Caused by continuous stress on a certain body part
over a long period of time by overuse
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Tennis players can develop tennis elbow – an
inflammation of the tendons in the elbow due to
overuse of certain arm muscles
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Long distance runners can develop shin splints – a
bone injury in the front of the leg
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Risks of this type of injury can be training too hard,
not enough rest, poor footwear or bad technique
ACUTE
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Caused by sudden stress on a body part, such as a
fracture, pulled muscle or concussion
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Can occur by colliding with an opponent, being hit
by something or falling from a height or with speed.
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INJURY PREVENTION
Take off any jewellery
Use the right equipment
Be aware of possible dangers
Use correct technique
Warm up before activity
Know and follow the rules
Wear suitable footwear
Use protective equipment if necessary
Use officials to ensure fair play
Cool down after activity
Give yourself time to recover before
playing again.
SOFT TISSUE INJURIES
Open injuries occur when the skin is
broken, usually allowing blood to
escape
Closed injuries happen under the skin
1.
Bruising – damage to blood vessels
2.
Strained (pulled) muscles – tears
in tissues, caused by overstretching
3.
Sprains – joint injuries, where the
ligament has been stretched or torn
4.
Dislocation – joint injuries, where
the bone is pulled out of its usual
position
5.
Cartilage – can be torn by violent
impact such as twisting
HARD TISSUE INJURIES
Fractures are either cracks in the bone or
an actual break. These can be open or
closed. In an open fracture, the bone
breaks the skin; in a closed fracture, it
happens under the skin.
Fractures are usually accompanied by
bruising and swelling around the
injured area, because the blood
vessels are damaged there
They are also painful because of the
damaged nerves inside the bone.
A stress fracture is a crack along the
length of the bone, which is caused by
continuous stress over a long period of
time.
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TYPES AND TREATMENTS
HYPERTHERMIA
Symptoms – temperature increases, weak pulse,
results from over exercising and dehydration
Treatment – lie patient in cool place, give them
liquids
HYPOTHERMIA
Symptoms – temperature falls too low, muscles
go rigid, irregular heart beat
Treatment – raise temperature, wrap in warm,
dry clothing, hot drinks
CRAMP
Symptoms – involuntary contraction of muscles,
caused by lack of salt in the blood, or lack of
blood flowing to the muscle
Treatment – stretch the muscle, massaging it
gently
TYPES AND TREATMENTS
WINDING
Symptoms – difficulty in breathing, pain in the
abdomen
Treatment – lean forward, rub affected area
SHOCK
Symptoms – pale, clammy skin, fast, weak
pulse, feel dizzy, thirsty, or sick
Treatment – call ambulance
CONCUSSION
Symptoms – unconsciousness, memory loss,
sick
Treatment – call ambulance
STITCH
Symptoms – sharp pain in abdomen
Treatment – stop exercising, take deep breaths,
breath out slowly
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RICE
This is a good treatment for all soft tissue injuries. It reduces pain, swelling and
bruising.
R – rest. Stop straight away. If you carry on it will make the injury worse
I – ice. Apply ice to the injury. This makes the blood vessels contract to reduce
the bleeding and swelling
C – compression. Wrapping the injury will also help to reduce the swelling, but
don’t make it so tight that the blood is prevented from circulating
E – elevation. Support the injury at a raised level (above the heart), so the flow
of blood is reduced because it has to flow against gravity
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