EXPLORING
PSYCHOLOGY
(7th Edition)
David Myers
PowerPoint Slides
Aneeq Ahmad
Henderson State University
Worth Publishers, © 2008
1
Thinking Critically With
Psychological Science
Chapter 1
2
COMMONLY HELD
PSYCHOLOGICAL BELIEFS
• Decide if the statements are true or false
based on your experiences and beliefs
• Compare your answers to the correct
answers based on empirical research
• What are your conclusions?
3
PERSON PERCEPTION ACTIVITY
1. How comfortable were you doing this activity?
Why?
2. Did you ask someone to be in your group or did
you wait to be asked? Is this your typical
behavior?
3. Which was harder, to evaluate or be evaluated?
4. How accurate were you in your assessments?
What did you base your perceptions on?
5. How similar or dissimilar is this to how we form
impressions? Explain
6. How easy is it to change first impressions?
Why?
4
Psychology’s Roots
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
http://faculty.washington.edu
Aristotle suggested that the soul and body are not
separate and that knowledge grows from
experience.
5
Psychological Science is Born
Wundt (1832-1920)
Wundt and psychology’s
first graduate students
studied the “atoms of the
mind” by conducting 1st
psychological experiments
at Leipzig, Germany, in
1879. Considered the birth
of psychology as we know
it today.
Used introspection
6
(activity).
INTROSPECTION
• Structuralism was a school of psychology
that explored the elemental structures of
the human mind.
• Introspection = self-reflective examination
of immediate sensations, images and
feelings. Introspection was a technique
used by structuralists.
7
Psychological Science is Born
Mary Calkins
James (1842-1910)
American philosopher William James wrote an important
1890 psychology textbook. Mary Calkins, James’s
student, became the APA’s first female president. 8
William James
• James rejected structuralism and
emphasized functionalism.
• Functionalism was a school of psychology
that focused on how mental and
behavioral processes function, in other
words how they enable the organism to
adapt, survive, and flourish.
• What function could an addiction serve?
9
Psychological Science is Born
Freud (1856-1939)
Sigmund Freud, an Austrian physician, and his
followers emphasized the importance of the
unconscious mind and its effects on human behavior.
10
Psychological Science Develops
Behaviorists
Skinner (1904-1990)
Watson (1878-1958)
Watson and later Skinner emphasized the study of
overt behavior as the subject matter of scientific
psychology. Emphasis is on learned behavior;
11
rewards and punishments.
Psychological Science Develops
Rogers (1902-1987)
http://www.carlrogers.dk
http://facultyweb.cortland.edu
Maslow (1908-1970)
Humanistic Psychology
Maslow and Rogers emphasized current
environmental influences on our growth potential
12
and our need for love and acceptance.
SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY
• Complete handout “Schools of
Psychology”
• 1 = strongly agree to 7 = strongly disagree
• Add your numerical score for questions
#3,#4, #8, and 10 = Psychodynamic
• Add your numerical score for questions
#5, #9, #11, and #2 = Behavioral
• Add your numerical score for questions
#1, #6, #7, and #12 = Humanistic
13
SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY
• Your lowest number equals your school of
psychology
• Your guru is
– Psychodynamic = Freud
– Behavioral = Skinner or Watson
– Humanistic = Maslow or Rogers
14
Psychology’s Current Perspectives
Perspective
Focus
Sample Questions
Neuroscience
How the body and brain
enables emotions?
How are messages
transmitted in the body? How
is blood chemistry linked with
moods and motives?
Evolutionary
How the natural selection
of traits the promotes the
perpetuation of one’s
genes?
How does evolution influence
behavior tendencies?
Behavior genetics How much our genes and
our environments
influence our individual
differences?
To what extent are
psychological traits such as
intelligence, personality,
sexual orientation, and
vulnerability to depression
attributable to our genes? To
our environment?
15
Psychology’s Current Perspectives
Perspective
Focus
Sample Questions
Psychodynamic
How behavior springs
from unconscious drives
and conflicts?
How can someone’s
personality traits and
disorders be explained in
terms of sexual and
aggressive drives or as
disguised effects of unfulfilled
wishes and childhood
traumas?
Behavioral
How we learn observable
responses?
How do we learn to fear
particular objects or
situations? What is the most
effective way to alter our
behavior, say to lose weight or
quit smoking?
16
Psychology’s Current Perspectives
Perspective
Focus
Sample Questions
Cognitive
How we encode, process,
store and retrieve
information?
How do we use information
in remembering? Reasoning?
Problem solving?
Social-cultural
How behavior and
thinking vary across
situations and cultures?
How are we — as Africans,
Asians, Australians or North
Americans – alike as members
of human family? As products
of different environmental
contexts, how do we differ?
17
PERSPECTIVES
Andrea Yates case study
18
PERSPECTIVES
• In a small groups, decide on a social
problem to analyze according to the major
psychological perspectives
• Use page 8 in your textbook to complete
the graphic organizer
– Write a few key words to describe the
perspective
– Develop one or two questions that a
psychologist practicing this perspective might
ask about the problem (You’re trying to get at
the WHY of the problem)
19
Psychology’s Subfields: Research
Psychologist
Biological
Developmental
Cognitive
Personality
Social
What she does
Explore the links between brain and
mind.
Study changing abilities from womb to
tomb.
Study how we perceive, think, and solve
problems.
Investigate our persistent traits.
Explore how we view and affect one
another.
20
Psychology’s Subfields: Research
Other 11.5%
Experimental
14.1%
Biological
9.9%
Developmental
24.6%
Psychometrics
5.5%
Cognitive
8.0%
Social 21.6%
Personality
4.8%
Data: APA 1997
21
Psychology’s Subfields: Applied
Psychologist
Clinical
What she does
Studies, assesses, and treats people with
psychological disorders
Counseling
Helps people cope with academic,
vocational, and marital challenges.
Educational
Studies and helps individuals in school
and educational settings
Industrial/
Organizational
Studies and advises on behavior in the
workplace.
22
Psychology’s Subfields: Applied
Industrial
6%
Educational
9%
Other
3%
Counseling
15%
Clinical
67%
Data: APA 1997
23
Perspectives vs. Subfields
• Perspectives (approaches)
• General theory: “lens” through
which one views psychology
• Neuroscience (biological)
• Evolutionary
• Behavior Genetics
• Psychodynamic
• Behavioral
• Cognitive
• Social –Cultural
• Humanistic
• (could be different # or name)
• Subfields
• Psychologists focus
(specialize) on certain
behaviors or mental processes
• Basic research – experiments,
collect data to expand
knowledge in field
• Applied research – solving
specific, practical problems
• * Subfields change as new
research develops or trends
change
24
Clinical Psychology vs. Psychiatry
A clinical psychologist (Ph.D.) studies, assesses,
and treats troubled people with psychotherapy.
Psychiatrists on the other hand are medical
professionals (M.D.) who use treatments like drugs
and psychotherapy to treat psychologically
diseased patients.
25
Psychology Today
We define psychology today as the scientific
study of behavior (what we do) and mental
processes (inner thoughts and feelings).
26
Psychological Associations &
Societies
The American Psychological Association is the
largest organization of psychology with 160,000
members world-wide, followed by the British
Psychological Society with 34,000 members.
27
Psychology’s Big Question
Nature versus Nurture
The controversy over the relative contributions of
biology and experience.
Nurture works on what nature endows.
28
Psychology’s Three Main Levels of
Analysis
29
Personality
An individual’s characteristic pattern of
thinking, feeling, and acting.
Each dwarf has a distinct personality.
30
Psychoanalytic Perspective
Culver Pictures
In his clinical practice,
Freud encountered
patients suffering from
nervous disorders.
Their complaints
could not be explained
in terms of purely
physical causes.
Sigmund Freud
(1856-1939)
31
Psychodynamic Perspective
Culver Pictures
Freud’s clinical
experience led him to
develop the first
comprehensive theory
of personality, which
included the
unconscious mind,
psychosexual stages,
and defense
mechanisms.
Sigmund Freud
(1856-1939)
32
Exploring the Unconscious
A reservoir (unconscious mind) of mostly
unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and
memories. Freud asked patients to say whatever
came to their minds (free association) in order to
tap the unconscious.
http://www.english.upenn.edu
33
Dream Analysis
Another method to analyze the unconscious
mind is through interpreting manifest and
latent contents of dreams.
The Nightmare, Henry Fuseli (1791)
34
Psychoanalysis
The process of free
association (chain of
thoughts) leads to
painful, embarrassing
unconscious memories.
Once these memories
are retrieved and
released (treatment:
psychoanalysis) the
patient feels better.
35
Model of Mind
The mind is like an iceberg. It is mostly hidden;
and below the surface lies the unconscious
mind. The preconscious stores temporary
memories.
36
Personality Structure
Personality develops as a result of our efforts to resolve
conflicts between our aggressive, pleasure seeking
biological impulses (id) and social restraints (superego).
37
Id, Ego and Superego =
personality structure
The ego functions as the “executive” and
mediates the demands of the id and superego.
Operates on the reality principle, gratifying the
id’s impulses in a realistic manner.
The Id unconsciously strives to satisfy basic sexual
and aggressive drives, operating on the pleasure
principle, demanding immediate gratification.
38
PERSONALITY STRUCTURE
(CONT.)
The superego provides standards for judgment
(the conscience) and for future aspirations.
Operates on the morality principle. Includes the
ego ideal striving for perfection , constantly
judging and producing pride or guilt.
39
SKITS
• Divide into groups of four or five.
• Read the hypothetical situation provided.
• Develop a skit in which you “act out” the
scenario described and what other events
might occur next
• Everyone should have a speaking part
• Be sure the role of the id, ego, and
superego are clear to the audience.
40
Personality Development
Freud believed that personality formed during the first
few years of life and was divided into psychosexual
stages.
Adult problems are often rooted in unresolved conflicts
from this time.
During these stages the id’s pleasure-seeking energies
focus on pleasure sensitive body areas called erogenous
zones.
Children may fixate due to strong conflicts at a
particular stage, leading to later problems.
41
Psychosexual Stages
Freud divided the development of personality
into five psychosexual stages.
42
PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES
• What are the consequences of unresolved conflicts at
each stage?
– Oral
– Anal
– Phallic
– Latency
– Genital
43
PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES
• Oral: weaning is the conflict; problems: overly
sarcastic, eating disorders, smoking, alcoholism,
overly dependent
• Anal: toilet training thus control is the conflict;
problems: stingy or overly generous, extremely
organized, stubborn, overly neat, detailed or
very sloppy, sticking rigidly to the rules or very
rebellious
44
PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES
• Phallic: conflict is relationship with parents;
• Additional points:
– Electra complex in girls
– Superego gains strength
– Fear of retaliation (castration anxiety) leads to
identification
– Penis envy in girls
45
PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES
• Phallic problems: difficulties with authority
figures, problems in love relationships,
socially disapproved sexual behavior,
gender role problems, extreme guilt,
anxiety, depression
46
PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES
• Latency: sexual impulses are dormant
• Genital: seeking relationships; no new
conflicts/old conflicts resurface
47
Oedipus Complex
A boy’s sexual desire for his mother and
feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival
father. A girl’s desire for her father is called the
Electra complex.
http://www.gigglesugar.com/626457
48
Identification
From the K. Vandervelde private collection
Children cope with
threatening feelings by
repressing them and
by identifying with
the rival parent.
Through this process
of identification, their
superego gains
strength that
incorporates their
parents’ values.
49
Defense Mechanisms
The ego’s protective methods of reducing
anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.
1. Repression banishes anxiety-arousing
thoughts, feelings, and memories from
consciousness.
2. Regression leads an individual faced with
anxiety to retreat to a more infantile
psychosexual stage.
3. Defense Mechanisms
50
Defense Mechanisms
3. Reaction Formation causes the ego to
unconsciously switch unacceptable
impulses into their opposites. People may
express feelings of purity when they may be
suffering anxiety from unconscious feelings
about sex.
4. Projection leads people to disguise their
own threatening impulses by attributing
them to others.
51
Defense Mechanisms
5. Rationalization offers self-justifying
explanations in place of the real, more
threatening, unconscious reasons for one’s
actions.
6. Displacement shifts sexual or aggressive
impulses toward a more acceptable or less
threatening object or person, redirecting
anger toward a safer outlet.
7. Sublimation converts unacceptable
impulses into socially acceptable actions.
Example: aggressive desire may appear as
devotion to athletic excellence.
52
DEFENSE MECHANISMS
• Identify the defense mechanism used in
each example.
• Possible defense mechanisms:
repression, regression, displacement,
rationalization, reaction formation,
projection, sublimation
53
CHOICES: repression, regression, displacement,
rationalization, reaction formation, projection,
sublimation
• 1. Three years after being hospitalized for
painful back surgery, the person can only
remember vague details of the ordeal.
• 2. Angered by her boss’s hurtful comments, a
mother spanks her child for spilling some milk.
• 3. After being rejected by a prestigious
university, a student explains he is glad because
he will be happier at a smaller, more personal
college.
54
CHOICES: repression, regression, displacement,
rationalization, reaction formation, projection,
sublimation
• 4. A married woman who is romantically
attracted to a co-worker, accuses him of flirting
with her.
• 5. Threatened by their awakening romantic
attraction to girls, adolescent boys often go out
of their way to tease and torment adolescent
girls.
• 6. After her parents’ bitter divorce, a 10 year old
girl refuses to sleep alone in her room, crawling
into her mother’s bed each night.
• 7. A young man who has gotten into trouble in
school for fighting, goes out for the football team.
55
ANSWERS
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
repression
displacement
rationalization
projection
reaction formation
regression
sublimation
56
DEFINITION OF
PERSONALITY
• An individual’s characteristic pattern of
thinking, feeling, and acting.
• How did Freud define personality?
• Note the differences between Freud and
Neo-Freudians such as Adler in their
explanations for how we develop our
personalities.
57
The Neo-Freudians
National Library of Medicine
Like Freud, Adler
believed in childhood
tensions. However, these
tensions were social in
nature and not sexual. A
child struggles with an
inferiority complex
during growth and
strives for superiority
and power.
Alfred Adler (1870-1937)
58
BIRTH ORDER
• Adler theorized that a person’s birth order had
an effect on their personality.
• This concept reflects the Neo-Freudian
viewpoint that childhood influences are not just
aggressive or sexual, but also include social
influence.
• How has your birth order influenced your life?
• Do you think these experiences have shaped
your personality?
59
ANSWERS TO BIRTH ORDER
ACTIVITY:
•
•
•
•
First born
Youngest
Middle
Only
2
4
1
3
3
1
4
2
4
1
2
3
4
3
2
1
60
The Neo-Freudians
The Bettmann Archive/ Corbis
Like Adler, Horney
believed in the social
aspects of childhood
growth and
development. She
countered Freud’s
assumption that
women have weak
superegos and suffer
from “penis envy.”
Karen Horney (1885-1952)
61
The Neo-Freudians
Archive of the History of American Psychology/ University of Akron
Jung believed in the
collective unconscious,
which contained a
common reservoir of
images derived from our
species’ past. This is why
many cultures share
certain myths and images
such as the mother being
a symbol of nurturance.
Carl Jung (1875-1961)
62
Evaluating the Psychoanalytic
Perspective
The scientific merits of Freud’s theory have
been criticized. Psychoanalysis is meagerly
testable. Most of its concepts arise out of clinical
practice, which are the after-the-fact
explanation.
63
Evaluating the Psychoanalytic
Perspective
Freud's psychoanalytic theory rests on the
repression of painful experiences into the
unconscious mind.
The majority of children, death camp survivors,
and battle-scarred veterans are unable to
repress painful experiences into their
unconscious mind.
64
Evaluating the Psychoanalytic
Perspective
Modern Research
1. Personality develops throughout life and is
not fixed in childhood.
2. Freud underemphasized peer influence on
the individual, which may be as powerful
as parental influence.
3. Gender identity may develop before 5-6
years of age.
65
Evaluating the Psychoanalytic
Perspective
Modern Research
4. There may be other reasons for dreams
besides wish fulfillment.
5. Verbal slips can be explained on the basis of
cognitive processing of verbal choices.
6. Suppressed sexuality leads to psychological
disorders. Sexual inhibition has decreased,
but psychological disorders have not.
66
Assessing Unconscious Processes
Evaluating personality from an unconscious
mind’s perspective would require a
psychological instrument (projective tests) that
would reveal the hidden unconscious mind.
67
PROJECTIVE TEST EXAMPLES
•
•
•
•
Draw a Picture examples
Why is this a type of projective test?
Pros and cons of this type of test?
Can you make up a story about these
examples of a TAT?
• Why are these pictures examples of
projective tests?
68
69
70
Thematic Apperception Test
(TAT)
Developed by Henry Murray, the TAT is a
projective test in which people express their inner
feelings and interests through the stories they make
up about ambiguous scenes.
Lew Merrim/ Photo Researcher, Inc.
71
Rorschach Inkblot Test
The most widely used projective test uses a set
of 10 inkblots and was designed by Hermann
Rorschach. It seeks to identify people’s inner
feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the
blots.
Lew Merrim/ Photo Researcher, Inc.
72
PROJECTIVE TESTS
• What do you see in these inkblots?
• Were the inkblots created to show a
specific thing?
• Why is this an example of a projective
test?
• Are the inkblots more or less ambiguous
than the TAT?
73
74
75
Projective Tests: Criticisms
Critics argue that projective tests lack both
reliability (consistency of results) and validity
(predicting what it is supposed to).
1. When evaluating the same patient, even
trained raters come up with different
interpretations (reliability).
2. Projective tests may misdiagnose a normal
individual as pathological (validity).
76
Assessing Traits
Personality inventories are questionnaires
(often with true-false or agree-disagree items)
designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and
behaviors assessing several traits at once.
77
OBJECTIVE TESTS
• You will be completing an example of an
objective personality test today.
• This is a self-scored test. No one else will see
your results.
• The results do NOT deal with any deep seated
personality problems.
• Go to my web page and click on Psych 6.0
Thinking Critically with Psychological Science
link. From today’s date on calendar - follow the
link for the Myers-Briggs Personality Inventory.
78
MYERS BRIGGS PERSONALITY
INVENTORY
• Complete the test, determine the 4 letters that indicate
your personality type.
• Read the two type descriptions
• Read about the career that most closely matches your
personality type
• Answer the questions on the sheet/hand in
• Hand in chart
• Shut down your computer
• Be prepared to discuss:
– How accurate did you feel the results were?
– How did the test determine your personality type?
– What are the pros and cons of using this type of personality
assessment?
79
MMPI
The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory (MMPI) is the most widely
researched and clinically used of all personality
tests. It was originally developed to identify
emotional disorders.
The MMPI was developed by empirically
testing a pool of items and then selecting those
that discriminated between diagnostic groups.
80
TRUE OR FALSE
• I wake up fresh and rested most mornings.
• There seems to be a lump in my throat
much of the time.
• I do not always tell the truth.
• I believe I am being plotted against.
• Criticism or scolding hurts me terribly.
• Even when I am with people I feel lonely
much of the time.
81
MMPI Test Profile
82
The Big Five Factors
Today’s trait researchers believe that earlier trait
dimensions, such as Eysencks’ personality dimensions,
fail to tell the whole story. So, an expanded range (five
factors) of traits does a better job of assessment.
Conscientiousness
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
Openness
Extraversion
83
Endpoints
84
STUDY GUIDE REVIEW
1. Progress Test 1, p. 8, #”s 1-11, or
Progress Test 2, p. 10 #’s 1-11
2. Thinking Critically, p. 12 #’s 1-9
3. Check Answers beginning on p. 20
_______________________________________
1. Progress Test 1, p. 348 #’s 1-4, 6, and 15, or
Progress Test 2, p. 350-352, #’s 1-3, 7, 10, 17
2. Thinking Critically, p. 353 #’s 1,2,4,8,9
3. Check Answers beginning on p. 361
85
Why Do Psychology?
1. How can we differentiate between
uniformed opinions and examined
conclusions?
2. The science of psychology helps make
these examined conclusions, which leads
to our understanding of how people feel,
think, and act as they do!
86
Limits of Human Intuition and
Overconfidence Activity
• Math Problem
• Estimating Murder Rates Activity
• Overconfidence Activity
87
Overconfidence Activity
• I feel 98 percent certain that the area of the U.S. is
more than ____ square miles but less than ____
square miles.
• I feel 98 percent certain that in 2003 the population of
Australia was more than ___ but less than ____.
• I feel 98 percent certain that the number of American
battle deaths in the Spanish-American War was more
than ___ but less than ___.
88
Overconfidence Activity
• I feel 98 percent certain that in 2002 the
number of female engineers in the United
States was more than ___ but less than
___.
• I feel 98 percent certain that in 2002 the
number of operating nuclear plants in the
world was more than ___ but less than
___.
89
ACTIVITY
• Need ten volunteers
• You will be instructed to lie or tell the truth.
Be sure your response is detailed and
believable.
• Determine if the student is lying or telling
the truth. Rate your degree of confidence
50% = fifty-fifty chance
100% = absolutely certain
90
What About Intuition & Common
Sense?
Many people believe that intuition and common
sense are enough to bring forth answers regarding
human nature.
Intuition and common sense may aid queries,
but they are not free of error.
91
Limits of Intuition
Personal interviewers may
rely too much on their “gut
feelings” when meeting
with job applicants.
Taxi/ Getty Images
92
Hindsight Bias
Hindsight Bias is the “I-knew-it-all-along”
phenomenon.
After learning the outcome of an event, many
people believe they could have predicted that very
outcome. We only knew the stock market would
plummet after it actually did plummet.
Video: Understanding Research
93
Overconfidence
Sometimes we think we
know more than we
actually know.
How long do you think it
would take to unscramble
these anagrams?
People said it would take
about 10 seconds, yet on
average they took about 3
minutes (Goranson, 1978).
Anagram
WREAT
WATER
ETYRN
ENTRY
GRABE
BARGE
94
The Scientific Attitude
The scientific attitude is composed of curiosity
(passion for exploration), skepticism (doubting
and questioning) and humility (ability to accept
responsibility when wrong).
95
Critical Thinking
Courtesy of the James Randi Education Foundation
Critical thinking does
not accept arguments
and conclusions blindly.
It examines
assumptions, discerns
hidden values,
evaluates evidence and
assesses conclusions.
The Amazing Randi
96
How Do Psychologists Ask &
Answer Questions?
Psychologists, like all scientists, use the
scientific method to construct theories that
organize, summarize and simplify
observations.
97
Theory
A theory is an explanation that integrates
principles and organizes and predicts
behavior or events.
For example, low self-esteem contributes to
depression.
98
Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a testable prediction, often
prompted by a theory, to enable us to
accept, reject or revise the theory.
People with low self-esteem are apt to feel
more depressed.
99
Research Observations
Research would require us to administer
tests of self-esteem and depression.
Individuals who score low on a self-esteem
test and high on a depression test would
confirm our hypothesis.
100
Research Process
101
OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS
• Operational definitions reduce experimenter bias
and allow for replication (repeating results)
• An operational definition of a variable is
observable and measurable. How could selfesteem be observed and measured?
• Activity: operationally define the underlined term.
102
OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS
• When will frustrated drivers show
aggression.
• A study skills course will help students
study more efficiently.
• A new form of therapy will make people
less depressed.
• Overall senior girls are prettier than
sophomore girls.
103
ADDITIONAL PRACTICE
OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS
• Remember, you need to be able to
observe and measure the variable:
– Happiness
– Fear
– Conscientiousness
104
Description
Case Study
A technique in which one person, group, or
situation is studied in depth to reveal underlying
behavioral principles.
Susan Kuklin/ Photo Researchers
Is language uniquely human?
105
CASE STUDY
• Often used in clinical work.
• Can include tests, interviews, analysis of
letters, or transcripts.
• Example: Phineas Gage
106
Survey
A technique for ascertaining the self-reported
attitudes, opinions or behaviors of people
usually done by questioning a representative,
random sample of people.
http://www.lynnefeatherstone.org
107
Survey
Random Sampling
If each member of a
population (the larger group
the hypothesis applies to) has
an equal chance of inclusion
into a sample, it is called a
random sample (unbiased). It
will be representative of the
population. If the survey
sample is biased, its results
are not valid.
The fastest way to know about the
marble color ratio is to blindly
transfer a few into a smaller jar and
count them.
108
Survey
Wording Effects
Wording can change the results of a survey.
Q: Should cigarette ads and pornography not be
allowed on television? (not allowed vs. forbid)
109
WORDING EFFECTS
• Women with young children should be
able to work outside the home.
– 8 in 10 Americans agreed
110
WORDING EFFECTS
• Women should stay at home if they have
young preschool children.
– 7 in 10 Americans agreed
111
SURVEY
• People may be reluctant to admit
undesirable or embarrassing things about
themselves
• Or they may say what they think they
should say.
• Examples?
112
FALSE CONSENSUS EFFECT
• A tendency to overestimate the extent to
which others share our beliefs and
behaviors.
• Example?
113
Naturalistic Observation
Observing and recording the behavior of animals in the
wild and recording self-seating patterns in a multiracial
school lunch room constitute naturalistic observation.
Courtesy of Gilda Morelli
114
NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION
• What problems did you encounter while
doing the naturalistic observation?
• What were the advantages of doing this
type of research?
• How would you describe your results?
• What can we conclude from the data?
• Can we assume causation from this data?
Why or why not?
115
Descriptive Methods
Summary
Case studies, surveys, and naturalistic
observation describe behaviors. They are
correlational types of research rather than
experimental.
116
CORRELATION
• Correlation shows a relationship between
variables.
• It is measured by the correlation
coefficient.
• The extent to which two factors vary
together, determines how well either factor
predicts the other
117
Correlation
When one trait or behavior accompanies
another, we say the two correlate.
Indicates strength
of relationship
(0.00 to 1.00)
Correlation
coefficient
Correlation Coefficient is a
statistical measure of the
relationship between two
variables.
r = + 0.37
Indicates direction
of relationship
(positive or negative)
118
CORRELATION
• Positive correlation: a direct relationship;
two variables increase or decrease
together
• Negative correlation: an inverse
relationship; as one thing increases, the
other decreases.
• It would be very rare in Psychology to
have a perfect (1.00) correlation
119
Correlation does not mean
causation!!!
or
120
Correlation Practice
• Which relationship is stronger?
+.6 or -.7
• Complete PsychSim Activity
121
Illusory Correlation
The perception of a relationship where no
relationship actually exists. When we believe there
is a relationship we are likely to notice and recall
instances that confirm our belief. Parents conceive
children after adoption.
Adopt
Confirming
evidence
Disconfirming
evidence
Do not
adopt
Disconfirming
evidence
Confirming
evidence
Michael Newman Jr./ Photo Edit
Conceive
Do not
conceive
122
Order in Random Events
Given random data, we look for order and
meaningful patterns.
Your chances of being dealt either of these hands is
precisely the same: 1 in 2,598,960.
123
Order in Random Events
Given large numbers of random outcomes, a few
are likely to express order.
Jerry Telfer/ San Francisco Chronicle
Angelo and Maria Gallina won two
California lottery games on the same day.
124
Experimentation
Exploring Cause and Effect
Like other sciences, experimentation is the
backbone of psychological research. Experiments
isolate causes and their effects.
Reaction Time Experiment
125
Exploring Cause & Effect
Many factors influence our behavior. Experiments
(1) manipulate factors that interest us, while other
factors are kept under (2) control.
Effects generated by manipulated factors isolate
cause and effect relationships.
126
Independent Variable
An independent variable is a factor manipulated
by the experimenter. The effect of the independent
variable is the focus of the study.
For example, when examining the effects of breast
feeding upon intelligence, breast feeding is the
independent variable.
127
Dependent Variable
A dependent variable is a factor that may change
in response to an independent variable. In
psychology, it is usually a behavior or a mental
process.
For example, in our study on the effect of breast
feeding upon intelligence, intelligence is the
dependent variable.
128
INDEPENDENT AND
DEPENDENT VARIABLES
• What (IV) affects what (DV)?
• Practice exercises.
129
CONTROLING OTHER
VARIABLES
• An experiment has at least two different
conditions:
control condition
experimental condition
Random assignment of subjects between
conditions equates the conditions
(basketball example)
130
CONFOUNDING AND RANDOM
VARIABLES
• Confounding and random variables need
to be eliminated when possible. Why?
• Random assignment is presumed to
distribute impact of uncontrolled variables
randomly and probably equally across
groups.
131
OTHER METHODS OF CONTROL
• Eliminating confirmation bias
• Eliminating order effects
• Matching conditions to eliminate
confounding variables
• Double blind
• Eliminate experimenter bias
– Experimenter expectancies (maze bright)
– Confirmation bias
132
Experimentation
A summary of steps during experimentation.
133
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Representative
Sample (larger
the better)
Experimental
Group
Independent
Variable
Measure
Dependent
Variable
Random
Assignment
Control
Group
=
Placebo
Is the difference
statistically
significant?
Measure
Dependent
Variable
Apply methods of
control
Apply Methods of
control
Population
134
EXPERIMENTATION
• Population (group you are generalizing
your hypothesis to)
• Random sample from the population
• Random sample creates a representative
sample rather than a biased sample
• Random assignment of subjects to
experimental group or control group
135
EXPERIMENTATION
• Experimental group gets the independent
variable
• Control group gets the placebo
• Be sure all measures of control are in
place so the only thing influencing the
results (dependent variable) is the
independent variable
136
EXPERIMENTATION
• Measure the dependent variable (you can
do this because of operational definitions)
• Compare the results between the
experimental group and the control group
using inferential statistics.
• Is there a statistically significant difference
(greater than 1 in 20 = .05)?
• If so, you have established a causal
relationship.
137
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
ASSIGNMENT
138
Complete Practice Exams in
Study Guide
– Chapter One, Answers begin p. 20
Progress Test One, p. 8 , #’s 1-20
Progress Test Two, p. 11, #’s 1 -20
Thinking Critically , p. 13 #’s 1-20
– Chapter Twelve, Answers begin p. 361
Progress Test One, p. 348, # 2-6, 15, and
Matching Items
Progress Test Two, p. 350, # 2, 7, 10 and
Matching Items
Thinking Critically, p. 353, #’s 1-5, 7-8, 11
139
ETHICAL PRINCIPLES
• Established by the American
Psychological Association
– Obtain informed consent of potential
participants
– Protect subjects from harm and discomfort
– Treat information about subjects confidentially
– Fully explain the research afterward (debrief)
– Institutional Review Boards should screen
research proposals
140
Comparison
Below is a comparison of different research
methods.
141
FAQ
Q1. Can laboratory experiments illuminate
everyday life?
Ans: Artificial laboratory conditions are created to
study behavior in simplistic terms. The goal is to
find underlying principles that govern behavior.
142
FAQ
Q2. Does behavior depend on one’s culture and gender?
Ans: Even when specific attitudes and behaviors vary across
cultures, as they often do, the underlying processes are much
the same. Biology determines our sex, and culture further
bends the genders. However, in many ways woman and
man are similarly human.
Ami Vitale/ Getty Images
143
FAQ
Q3. Why do psychologists study animals, and is it ethical
to experiment on animals?
Ans: Studying animals gives us the understanding of many
behaviors that may have common biology across animals
and humans. From animal studies, we have gained insights
to devastating and fatal diseases. All researchers who deal
with animal research are required to follow ethical
guidelines in caring for these animals.
D. Shapiro, © Wildlife Conservation Society
144
FAQ
Q4. Is it ethical to experiment on people?
Ans: Yes. Experiments that do not involve any
kind of physical or psychological harm beyond
normal levels encountered in daily life may be
carried out.
145
FAQ
Q5. Is psychology free of value judgments?
Ans: No. Psychology emerges from people who
subscribe to a set of values and judgments.
146
© Roger Shepard
FAQ
Q6. Is psychology potentially dangerous?
Ans: It can be, but it is not. The purpose of
psychology is to help humanity with problems
such as war, hunger, prejudice, crime, family
dysfunction, etc.
147
Tips for Studying Psychology
Psychology can teach you how to ask and answer
important questions.
Survey, Question, Read, Rehearse and Review (SQ3R)





Survey: What you are about to read, including chapter
outlines and section heads.
Question: Ask questions. Make notes.
Read: Look for the answer to your questions by
reading a manageable amount at a time.
Rehearse: Recall what you’ve read in your own words.
Test yourself with quizzes.
Review: What you learn. Read over notes and quickly
review the whole chapter.
148
Tips for Studying Psychology
Additional Study Hints





Distribute your time.
Learn to think critically.
Listen actively in class.
Overlearn.
Be a smart test-taker.
149
ESSAY QUESTION
Design an experiment to test whether alcohol consumption
influences people’s tendency to become socially
aggressive. Specify your experimental hypothesis and
identify your independent and dependent variables with
an operational definition for each. List one experimental
procedure that would help to ensure the validity of your
research and how it would be implemented.
–
–
–
–
A.
B.
C
D
Hypothesis
Independent variable with operational definition
Dependent variable with operational definition
Control procedure and how it would be implemented
150