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Motivation and Emotion
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* motivation
* a need or desire that energizes behavior
* achievement motive
* the need to master difficult challenges, to outperform others, and to meet high standards of
excellence. The drive to succeed.
* affiliation motive
* the need for belonging
* instinct (evolutionary) theory
* drive-reduction theory
* arousal theory
* hierarchy of needs theory
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* instinct
* (1) a complex behavior that has (2) a fixed
pattern throughout a species and is (3) unlearned
* humans: instinctive or individualistic?
* instinct theory may not explain human
motivation, but strong evidence that genes
predispose species-typical behavior
* drive-reduction theory:
* the idea that a physiological need creates an
aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an
organism to satisfy the need
* homeostasis:
* a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant
internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body
chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a
particular level
* incentive:
* a positive or negative environmental stimulus that
motivates behavior
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* push/pull
* pushed by need to reduce drives
* our inborn physiological needs
* pulled
by incentives
* our environment
* need + incentive = strong drive
* beyond homeostasis: some motivated behavior
increases arousal
* objective of human motivation: not to
eliminate arousal but to seek optimal levels of
it
* boredom increase arousal  stress
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* prioritizing needs
* Maslow’s pyramid
* physiological, safety and security, love and
belongingness, self-esteem, self-actualization
* once one level is met, we are prompted (driven) to
meet the next
* self-actualization  self-transcendence
* criticism:
* arbitrary, order not universal, individualistic
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* Three representative motives:
* hunger
* sexual motivation
* the need to belong
* biological, social and environmental factors
* hormones
* rising blood sugar level  pancreas secretes insulin
 lowers blood glucose levels  insulin release
inhibited
* the hypothalamus
* 3 areas that integrate information about hunger
and satisfaction
* environment
* inborn and learned preferences, cultural norms,
observational learning, classical conditioning
* obesity
* eating disorders
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* hypothalamus
* secretes hormones (testosterone and estrogen)
that initiate and maintain arousal
* sexual orientation
* the direction of an individual’s sexual interest
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* achievement motive
* affiliation motive
* intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation
* social conflict
* approach-approach/avoidance-
avoidance/approach-avoidance/multiple
approach-avoidance
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* motivated behavior  often driven by emotion
* emotion
* a response of the whole organism, involving (1)
physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and
(3) conscious experience
* emotions as an adaptive response:
* enhance our survival
* focus attention, energize action
* can also be maladaptive
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* emotions involve
* several areas of the brain,
* several neurotransmitter systems
* the autonomic nervous system
* the endocrine system
* amygdala (limbic system): aggression and fear
* hypothalamus: influences other emotional states
(anger)
* frontal lobes: control and interpretation of
emotions
* left hemisphere positive emotion
* right hemisphere  negative emotion
* emotions are inferred from nonverbal
expressive behaviors
* body language, vocal qualities, facial expression
* facial feedback hypothesis
* the effect of facial expressions on the
emotions we experience, as when a facial
expression of anger or happiness intensifies
feelings of anger or happiness
* does physiological arousal precede or follow
emotional response?
* does cognition precede or follow emotion?
* common sense approach:
* we cry because we are sad, tremble because we
are afraid, etc.
* accurate?
* 3 theories contradict common sense conclusion
* (1) James-Lange Theory
* what we experience as emotion is our awareness
of our physiological responses to emotionarousing stimuli.
* example: I am feeling sad because I am crying
* (2) Cannon-Bard Theory
* an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously
triggers (a) physiological responses [visceral
arousal] and (b) the subjective experience of
emotion [conscious experience of emotion]
* (3) Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory
* to experience emotion, one must
(a) be
physically aroused and (b) cognitively label the
arousal as a particular emotion
* stress:
* the process by which we perceive and respond to
certain events – stressors – that we appraise as
threatening or challenging
* heat, cold, pain, mild shock, restraint
* perceived as endangering our wel-being
* stressful events: a continuum of intensity
* catastrophes to significant life events to daily life
* high levels of stress  immune system, blood
pressure, quicker progression of existing disease
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* Hans Seyle, General Adaptation Syndrome
(GAS)
* three stages
* alarm
* resistance
* exhaustion
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* variation in patterns of reacting to stress
* Type A
* competitive, hard driving, impatient, verbally
aggressive, anger-prone
* Type B
* easy-going, relaxed, calm
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* adaptive
* direct action, problem solving, stress reduction
strategies
* maladaptive
* aggression, over-indulgence, self-medication,
defense mechanisms
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