Comenius Project
“I love this Game”
“Games and disabilities”
By Mrs Laura Firrigno
Seminar, Palermo 11 October 2011
PROGRAMMING
FORMULATION OF A PLAN THAT ADDRESSES THE
ACTION FOR THE ACHIEVEMENT OF CERTAIN
AIMS
APPROACH
COGNITIVE-BEHAVIORAL
INTEGRATES THERAPY AND BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION
(TMC) WITH ELEMENTS OF COGNITIVISM.
Behaviorism:
BRANCH OF PSYCHOLOGY BASED OF BEHAVIOR (HUMAN AND
ANIMAL) ANALYSIS, REFUSING METHODS OF SURVEY NOT
OBJECTIVELY VERIFIABLE.
ANALYSIS AND MODIFICATION
OF BEHAVIOR (ABA)
Principles and guidelines for achieving specific objectives
programs.
Basic options:
determinism, environmentalism, R-Sr
Basics:
observation, task analysis, skill, manipulation of antecedent and
consequent, use of specific techniques for increasing or
decreasing behaviors.
THE PRESENT PANORAMA
SEES THE INTEGRATION
OF THE COGNITIVIST MODEL
COGNITIVISM
BRANCH OF PSYCHOLOGY THAT GIVES PRIORITY TO COGNITIVE
PROCESSES IN DETERMINING INDIVIDUALBEHAVIOR
Main cognitive modules:
Ellis's rational-emotive therapy: psychological disorders are the result of erroneous
and irrational cognitive schemas
Self-instruction training: language guides the individual
behavior
Beck's cognitive therapy: modification of cognitive schemata improves adaptation to
the environment. Integrates behavioral and cognitive tasks.
Human information processing: input-process-output framework, the TOTE (test
operate test exit) replaces the SR; program cycle based on feedback in a self-regulating
system
Some cognitive-behavioral modules:
Bandura's social learning theory: behavior, personal and environmental
factors are a network of causal relationships
Multimodal approach of Lazarus: behavioral disturbances are the result
of the interaction of behavior, emotions, sensations, cognition,
imagination, interpersonal relationships and pharmacological effects.
Cognitive-behavioral
approach to disability
Determinism: behavior has a cause (biological
bases, cognitive structures, environment)
Environmentalism: many causes of disease lie in
the environment (physical, interpersonal and
organizational)
Location: many causes of behavior lie in
situations where the person with disability is
inserted
PROGRAMMING
Dual-track:
ENVIRONMENT
(adaptation of environment, demands of the environment.)
PERSON
(skills, capabilities)
Flowchart of the
Programming
phases
ASSESSMENT
Assessment:
Analysis and assessment of skills, capabilities and
deficiencies,through direct and indirect procedures.
WHAT TO OBSERVE:
behavior
PARAMETERS:
frequency
duration
intensity
FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOR
ANALYSIS
PROVIDES ADDITIONAL INFORMATION TO
DIRECT OBSERVATION, CONCERNING
BEHAVIOR DYNAMICS.
SCHEME
A-B-C
ANTECEDENTS
CONSEQUENTIALS
BEHAVIORS
(Especially used in case of problem-behaviors)
EXSAMPLE OF FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS
Behavior functional analysis
FOGLIO DI OSSERVAZIONE DEI COMPORTAMENTI PROBLEMATICI
ORARIO
LUOGO O
ATTIVITA’
TIPO DI
COMPORTAMENTO
MESSO IN ATTO DAL
BAMBINO
COSA E’ ACCADUTO QUALE PUO’ ESSERE
COSA E’
QUALE E’ STAT A
IMMEDIATAMENTE IL MOTIVO CHE HA ACCADUTO LA REAZIONE DEI
PRIMA (1)
SCATENATO
IL SUBITO DOPO
GENITORI/
COMPORTAMENTO
OPERATORI
(2)
1. Cosa faceva il bambino? Cosa facevate voi? Cosa facevano gli altri bambini? Cosa accadeva nell’ambiente?
2. C’è qualcosa che non ha capito? Qualcosa che non ha potuto realizzare?
QUALE E’ STATA
LA REAZIONE
DEL BAMBINO
ALLA LORO
REAZIONE
FORMULATION
OF
OBJECTIVES
Formulation
of Objectives
• Long-term objectives (over the year). Balance in
the relationship between present and future
• Mid-term objectives (3 months - 1 year).
REALISM - PRIORITY '- PROBABILITY' OF
SUCCESS
• Immediate educational goals
Goal = terminal behavior, ie performance the
child must show at the end of the teaching.
itinerary
• accuracy, observability, measurability
Formulation
of objectives
Elements that constitute the objective:
behavior, conditions, criteria
Behavior: what the child has to do
Conditions: the material and content, instruction,
factors that may facilitate or hinder performance.
(CONTROL BY THE STIMULUS)
Mastery criterion: the goal is reached when the
performance will be produced for some time.
100%: max level of mastery; 70-80% minimum
Parameters: Speed ​- Accuracy - amounts
Formulation
of objectives
TASK ANALYSIS:
operation through which each objective is
broken down into its basic components
a) isolate, describe and sequence the components
of the task
b) explore and describe the prerequisites needed
to run each of the component parts.
EXSAMPLE
OF TASK
ANALYSIS
USE THE FORK
Take a fork
Put it close to the plate
Skew the food
Bring the fork with food in your mouth
• CRITERIA FOR OBJECTIVES
FORMULATION :
EASE
FUNCTIONALITY
POSSIBILITY 'OF GENERALIZATION
MODULARITY
ECONOMY
In order to develop the objectives ask :
•
•
•
•
•
Will be functional?
Is the level appropriate?
Will increase the level of inclusion in school?
Can the target be generalized?
Does it take into account the priorities of the
class?
• Does it use the strength points and interests?
• Does it is proceed gradually?
IMPLEMENTATION
OF
STRATEGIES
ACTION TECHNIQUES
TECHNIQUES : structured strategies aimed at behavior
modification
• Techniques that increase the probability of emission of a
behavior
• Techniques that increase and / or reduce the possibility of
emission of a behavior
• Techniques that reduce the probability of emission of a
behavior
The choice of technique must be based on the characteristics of the person
INCREASE STRATEGIES
REINFORCEMENT
event that, presented
immediately after the
behavior, increases the
probability of emission
RINFORZI
SEGNO
ORIGINE
CONTENUTI
COLLOCAZIONE
HABITAT
POSITIVO
PRIMARI
TANGIBILI
INTRINSECO
NATURALE
NEGATIVO
SECONDARI
SOCIALI
ESTRINSECO
ARTIFICIALE
DINAMICI
SIMBOLICI
• POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT: increases the
probability of a behavior, the situation that
precedes the appearance of behavior is neutral
or positive
• NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT: increases
the probability or frequency of a behavior that
eliminates a state of uneasiness or discomfort,
so the situation that precedes the appearance of
behavior is negative
• PRIMARY REINFORCEMENT: unconditioned
reinforcement, its properties are innate (eg., Foods)
• SECONDARY REINFORCEMENT: learned or conditioned
reinforcement (eg., Money)
• EXTRINSIC REINFORCEMENT external to the person
and behavior
• INTRINSIC REINFORCEMENT: inside the person and
behavior
• NATURAL REINFORCEMENT lies in the person's life
• ARTIFICIAL REINFORCEMENT used in order to promote
learning
EXTRINSIC REINFORCEMENT CONTENT
TANGIBLE ENHANCER
edible
inedible
DYNAMIC ENHANCER: activities
SOCIAL ENHANCER : praise, appreciation
SYMBOLIC ENHANCER: tokens to exchange with
one or more of the above enhancers
REINFORCEMENT PROGAMM
CONTINUOUS
INTERMITTENT
RELATED
DURATION
FIXED
VARIABLE
ReinforcementRules
•
•
•
•
Select different enhancers (menu ')
Give the child a choice
Use them only after the desired behavior
Switch from an intermittent to a continuous
reinforcement
• Switch from artificial to a natural reinforcement
INCREASE
STRATEGIES
SHAPING: reinforcement of behaviors that are
closer and closer to the action end (goal or
behavior), that is the behavior that you want to
teach.
Modeling and reinforcement are always integrated
You must define the behavior/ the goal and the
various sub-goals necessary to achieve it, from the
beginning
Each stage must be adequately reinforced
Record the progress accurately to base the
transition to the next step on objective
information.
Example
of
Shaping e modeling
INCREASE
STRATEGIES
Prompting and errorless learning
technique of stimulus control, consisting of
external help added to the starting point, to
facilitate the emission of appropriate behavior
VERBAL AID (specific delivery; suggestion;
indirect delivery)
PHYSICAL HELP
HELPING HAND
VISUAL AID (figural, colored cardboard, written
word, etc.)
MODEL HELP
PROMPT RULES
Give only the minimum aid
Decrease gradually the evidence of the
prompt (fading)
Wait a few seconds after aid administration
before using it again
INCREASE
STRATEGIES
FADING
Gradual reduction of outside
provided aid, to promote the
highest possible level of
autonomy.
Fading of verbal prompt
* contents
* tone
Physical Prompt Fading
* Progressive reduction of contact
* Progressive reduction of the intensity of
contact
* removal from the contact point from to be
performedfocal action
fading imitation
* Gradual decrease of the model
Fading of gestural prompt
• reduction in the size of gesture
* Replacement of the gesture with a less
evident (eg., replace the touch
with the look)
Prompt Fading Visual
* Progressive reduction of
dimensions
* Progressive reduction of traits number
* Progressive reduction of intensity
Increase
strategies
CHAINING
construction of a chain with single stocks of
the terminal behavior, previously learned by
modeling,
Anterograde speaking, that is, starting
from the first and ending with the last
action,
or retrograde direction, ie starting with the
last action and ending with the first.
• The activity is split into its components
From the start the chaining mode is established
(anterograde or retrograde) and also the mode of
reinforcement
The behaviors are repeated in close temporal
contiguity until the whole chain becomes an
automatic sequence
INCREASE
STRATEGIES
MODELING
Learning skills through observation of a
model
modeling gradual (eg, motor skills of
increasing difficulty)
Driven model (demonstration and help of
the observer)
Symbolic model (through moving or still
images)
Covert modeling
Modeling by peers (tutoring)
Decrease
Strategies
Less restrictive treatment model
Level 1: positive techniques
(eg, differential reinforcement)
Level 2: positive techniques + frustration
(differential reinforcement/ extinction)
Level 3: positive techniques + frustration
+ punishment
(differential reinforcement + extinction +
time out or physical block or other
punishing techniques)
DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT
Reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) or
incompatible behaviors (DRI) with deleting
behavior
In addition, but not always
Extinction of problem behavior by eliminating
reinforcers which maintain it
EXTINCTION
To ignore the problematic behavior and
remove enhancers
Main forms of extinction:
social
sensory
EXTINCTION
It is not always easy to identify
enhancers of the problematic
behavior
The intervention should be adopted
by all in the same way
The surgery must be systematic
Has to product a state of frustration
EXTINCTION LIMITS
The extinguishing behavior tends to
recur
Sometimes the behavior is greatly
increased especially at the beginning
The inappropriate behavior can be
replaced by other
PUNISHMENT
Type A
Delivery of aversive stimulation (verbal,
physical, meta-verbal) as a result of
conduct, aimed at its reduction.
Type B
Stealing enhancers
Disadvantages and side effects of
punishment:
reduces only temporarily the behavior
you want to delete, in the long run it tends
to recur with unchanged frequency
produces anxiety and leads to avoidance
or escape behaviors (real leak, lies,
unconditional acquiescence with the
punisher). Anxiety is then stimulated by
the very presence of the person who
punishes.
The person in a state of anxiety has
difficulty both in learning new skills and
in performing the already learned. tasks
Disadvantages and side effects of
punishment:
Punishment may cause a reaction of aggressiveness
against the punisher or another person.
The person who punishes becomes an aggressive
model and may lead to imitative processes by
identifying with the model.
The punishment is a form of attention, even if
negative, and can reinforce maladoptive
behaviors
COMPOSITE
TECHNIQUES
TOKEN ECONOMY and EDUCATION
CONTRACT
Use of symbolic enhancers and following
exchange with support reinforcement
(usually tangible). Often associated with
the technique: COST OF RESPONSE
Applicable to individuals and groups.
APPLICATION RULES :
Clearly define the behaviors to reinforce and punish
Producing a rich list of support reinforcements
To establish an optimal relationship between number of
tokens and support reinforcements (inverse relationship
between satisfaction and appreciation of the reinforcement
directly proportional between reinforcement and approval
and number of tokens)
Establish an optimal relationship between severity of
inappropriate behavior and cost to be paid
Clearly define the moments in which you exchange
reinforcement tokens
TRAINING FOR 'SOCIAL SKILLS : use of different techniques
for the acquisition of adaptive social behavior
Techniques :
modeling, role reversal,
feedback, self-education,
muscle relaxation
Example of steps to follow:
Identification of deficits
Video recording in the
natural situation and
comment
modeling
Role reversal
Videotaping and feedback
Repetition of the behavior
generalization
In cases of severe
disability are used
prompting
and
reinforcement
TUTORING
Entruste peer the educational responsibility
of the partner.
Why?
Enhance learning (the tutor uses a simpler
linguistic code)
Encourage positive relationships between
students with disabilities and peers (in order
to that tutors must vary)
Promote the empowerment of the class
TUTORING
How?
Choosing a mentor (motivation, appropriate
communication skills; ability to adapt its behavior to
the response of the companion, self-control)
Features of the training (training of tutors; simulations)
Using multiple tutors
The tutor is reinforced by the operator (vicarious
reinforcement) only in the first part of the procedure
and in turn reinforces the companion. In the second
phase vicarious reinforcement is eliminated
GENERALIZATION
The generalization should be programmed
Types of generalization:
task (eg., toilet reading labels functional
objects and their variable-color, shape, size,
material, etc..)
environment (various child’s living
environments of external environment)
people (moving from operator to other people,
adults and peers)
CHECK
check
Determination of:
Degree of effectiveness and efficiency of treatment
(outcome)
Degree of effectiveness and efficiency of the
process (on the methodologies and report)
Degree of effectiveness and efficiency of the
techniques (techniques)
Degree of treatment efficacy:
demonstration of connection between action
and outcome, excluding, as much as
possible, other factors
groups: control group that doesn’t make the
treatment - the group that makes a
"placebo" – group that makes the
experimental treatment: input and output
measurements
Thank you
For attention !