Chapter 2: Theories
of Personality
Prof. M. Davis-Brantley
Psychodynamic Theory
• Theory created by Sigmund Freud who was trained as
a physician
• From Vienna, Austria and conducted much of his work
during the late 1800’s and early 1900’s
• Primarily worked with upper-class, Viennese women
who presented with physical difficulties with no organic
cause
– These symptoms would often disappear and return without
explanation
• He noticed that they would express strong emotions
when hypnotized and was first to comment that the root
of their difficulties were psychological
Psychodynamic Theory:
Psychosexual Stages of
Development
1.
Oral Stage
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2.
Anal Stage
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3.
Gratification is obtained through contraction and relaxation of the muscles that control
bowel movements. Early on these muscle work involuntarily.
Toilet training is likely to take place during this time and the child is learning to
distinguish between immediate gratification and self-control
Phallic Stage
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4.
Libidinal energy has moved to the genital area of the body (penis and clitoris)
Children may be reprimanded for masturbatory behaviors that aren’t socially acceptable
Children may begin to form affection for members of the opposite sex and the
Oedipus/Electra complex may arise
–
Oedipus/Electra complex typically resolves itself by ages 5 & 6 where the child begins to
identify with the member of their own gender and seeing that individual as someone to
learn from and they begin to incorporate gender roles and demands into repertoire
Latency Stage
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5.
Gratification is obtained through oral activities such as sucking or biting
This occurs during the 1st year of life and is how the child begins to learn about the
world
Early weaning can result in frustration and result in indulgence later on in life and
these individuals are likely to be dependent, overeat, smoke, use alcohol excessively,
or nail bite
Resolution of the complex leads to the entering into the repression of all sexual feelings until
they reemerge during the genital stage in adolescence
Genital Stage (Adolescence)
Psychodynamic Theory:
Structure of Personality
• Psychic Structures are mental structures that
represent aspects of behavior
– Id is the structure that is present at birth and
represents the physiological drives
• Functions under the Pleasure Principle
– Ego begins in the first year of life because a child’s
demands cannot be met immediately
• Functions to under the Reality Principle and attempts to
balance the Id and Superego
– Superego functions as a moral guardian and sets
forth high standards for behavior
• Functions under the Moral Principle and acts as the
conscience
Psychodynamic Theory:
Structure of the Mind
• Human mind is like an iceberg
– Conscious
• The clear and evident aspects of the personality
• What is evident to others
– Preconscious
• Not in immediate awareness but is able to brought into
awareness by focusing attention
– Unconscious
• Not at all in awareness
• Can contain biological instincts such as sex and aggression
Psychodynamic Theory:
Defense Mechanisms
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Repression: The ejection of anxiety-evoking ideas from awareness
Regression: The return, under stress, to a form of behavior characteristic
of an earlier stage of development
Rationalization: The use of self-deceiving justifications for unacceptable
behavior
Displacement: The transfer of ideas and impulses from threatening or
unsuitable objects to less threatening objects
Projection: The thrusting of one’s own unacceptable impulses onto others
so that others are assumed to harbor them
Reaction Formation: Assumption of behavior in opposition to one’s
genuine impulses in order to keep impulses repressed
Denial: The refusal to accept the true nature of a threat
Sublimation: The channeling of primitive sexual or aggressive impulses
into positive, constructive efforts
Neo-Freudian:
Psychosocial Stages
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Trust vs. Mistrust—babies learn to trust others will care for their basic
needs (birth to 1 year)
Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt—child learns that they can be selfsufficient (1-3 years)
Initiative vs. Guilt—children learn to undertake many adult activities or
be punished by parents and made to feel guilty (3-6 years)
Industry vs. Inferiority—child learns to be competent and productive or
unable to do anything (6-11 years)
Identity vs. Role Diffusion—Begin to understand/figure out “Who am I”?
Or are confused about who they are (adolescence)
Intimacy vs. Isolation—Person seeks companionship and love or can
become isolated because of fear of rejection or disappointment (Young
adulthood)
Generativity vs. Stagnation—Person explore contribution to next
generation such as meaningful work, raising a family, etc…(Middle
Adulthood)
Integrity vs. Despair—Person tries to make sense of life and sees it as
meaningful or not goal-directed (Older adulthood)
Learning Theories:
Behaviorism
• Focus on human’s capacity to learn from their
environment and to manipulate the world
• Learning-is the process that results in a relatively
consistent change in behavior or behavior potential and
is based on experience
• John Watson is considered the father of behaviorism
– He argued that previous use of introspection was not an
acceptable means of studying behavior
– This was too subjective means of studying human
behavior
– Observable behavior is key because states of
consciousness “are not verifiable and for that reason can
never become data for science
Behaviorism: Classical
Conditioning
• A basic form of learning in which one stimulus
or event predicts the occurrence of another
stimulus
• Ivan Pavlov-Russian physiologist studied
digestion in dogs (1904)
• His experiment was interrupted when the dogs
salivated randomly
• Actually were salivating in response to lab
assistants entering the room
• Pavlov began experiments to demonstrate that
the dogs salivated in response to stimuli that
was associated with food
Behaviorism: Classical
Conditioning
• Pavlov placed meat powder on the dog’s
tongue which led to the dog salivating
• The he repeated this process while ringing a
bell
• After several pairings of the meat powder and
the bell the two became associated
• When Pavlov would ring the bell the dog
learned salivate in response to the bell because
the bell and meat powder were conditioned
Behaviorism: Classical
Conditioning
• Meat powder was the stimulus which lead to
conditioning
• Unconditioned Stimulus (US) is the stimulus
which elicits a response from an organism
without learning (meat powder)
• Unconditioned Response (UR) is an unlearned
response (salivation)
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS) the previously
neutral stimulus that elicits a conditioned
response (bell)
• Conditioned Response (CR) the response to a
conditioned stimulus (salivation to the bell)
Behaviorism: Classical
Conditioning
• Conditioning of Fears
– John Watson demonstrated ability to
condition fears utilizing one year old “Little
Albert”
– Wanted to condition fear of a lab animalused a small white laboratory rat and banged
steel bars when “Little Albert” would reach
out and attempt to play with him
Behaviorism: Classical
Conditioning
• What happens to CRs-can become
extinguished when CSs are presented
repeatedly but not paired with US
• Extinction is when the CS is presented but not
paired with the US
– Ex: Ringing the bell but not pairing it with the meat
powder
• Spontaneous Recovery occurs when a
previously extinguished behavior recurs after
much time has elapsed
Behaviorism: Operant
Conditioning
• In Classical Conditioning involuntary responses
such as salivation are often conditioned
whereas in Operant Conditioning voluntary
responses such as pecking are conditioned
• Operant Conditioning is a simple form of
leaning in which behavior is altered based on
reinforcements and punishments
• B.F. Skinner demonstrated that hungry pigeons
will learn to peck buttons to get food
Behaviorism: Operant
Conditioning
• Reinforcement is a stimulus that increases the frequency of
a behavior
– Different from a reward in that by contrast a reward is a
pleasant stimulus that increases the frequency of a
behavior
• Positive Reinforcement increases the frequency of behavior
when presented
– Ex: Laughter Sr+ Joke telling
• Negative Reinforcement is a reinforcer that increases the
frequency of a behavior when it is removed
– Ex: Umbrella prevents getting wet in a rainstorm
– Ex: Seat belt buzzer serves a Sr- function the annoying
sound is terminated when the driver buckles up
Behaviorism: Operant
Conditioning
• Reinforcements
– Primary Reinforcers are unlearned
reinforcers such as food, water, warmth,
pain, affection, etc…
– Secondary Reinforcer is a stimulus that gains
reinforcement value as a result of association
with established reinforcers.
• Ex: Money, tokens, etc…
Behaviorism: Operant
Conditioning
• Punishment is an unpleasant or aversive
stimulus that decreases the frequency of
behavior
• Many theorists don’t recommend the use of
punishment especially in rearing children
• These theorists assert that punishment by
nature does not suggest an alternate more
desirable form of behavior
• Punishment is warranted in the case of
emergencies such as teaching a child not to run
out into the street
Behaviorism: Operant
Conditioning
• It is considered preferable to focus on
rewarding individuals for desirable
behavior vs. punishing them for
undesirable behavior
• Consider everyday use of Operant
Conditioning: Socialization
– Children are punished for fighting and
rewarded for sharing or getting good grades
Social Learning
Theory
or
Social-Cognitive
Theory
Cognitive Social-Learning
Theory
• Developed by Albert Bandura
– (Research on aggressive behavior: BoBo Doll Study)
• Focus is on the importance of environmental
influences on behavior and the cognitive
processes that accompany
• Combines the principles of learning with an
emphasis on human interactions in social
settings
Cognitive Social-Learning
Theory
• Reciprocal Determinism
– Complex interaction of individual factors (person
variables), behavior, and environment stimuli
• Person Variables
– Factors within the person that influence behavior
such as expectancies, competencies, attitudes,
beliefs, or prior Sr+ history
• These variables are in addition to your effect on the
environment and the environment’s effect on you
– Ex: Beginning an exercise regimen
– Reciprocal Determinism:
Person—Environment—Behavior
Cognitive Social-Learning
Theory
• Theorists believe that individuals are not
just a result of their environments but they
are self-aware and purposefully engage
in learning and attempt to alter their
environment in order to make Sr+
available
• Individuals do this through Observational
Learning
Cognitive Social-Learning
Theory
• Observational Learning- the process by which a person
alters their own behavior based on observations of
another person’s behavior
• Operant Conditioning: Stimulus + Sr results in learning
• With Social-learning observation individuals learn what
behaviors are appropriate and get rewarded and which
behaviors are not and get ignored or punished through
direct observation
• Direct Sr+ are not necessary
• Learner can observe others through reading or seeing
on TV or in movies
• Ex: Style or interacting with others
Cognitive Social-Learning
Theory
• Self-efficacy is the belief that one can perform
adequately in a particular situation
• Self-efficacy influences your perceptions, motivation,
and performance in many ways
– Do we attempt to do things we think we perform poorly?
We avoid situations in which we will feel inadequate.
• Self-efficacy expectations are beliefs that we can
accomplish certain things, such as speaking before a
group or swimming
• Those with positive self-efficacy expectations have
higher self-esteem
HumanisticExistential Theory
Humanism
• Foundation: Philosophers Humanists and Existentialists
– Focus on the meaning of life and self-awareness
• Adopted by Psychologists in the 1950’s who wanted to
respond the predominant Psychodynamic and
Behavioral model
• Places individuals and self-awareness at the center of
consideration
• Believe that people are capable of free choice, selffulfillment, and ethical behavior
• Argue that humans are not as automatic as other
theories assert
Existentialism
• The view that people are completely free
and responsible for their own behavior
• Existentialists believe that the focus is on
higher mental processes that interpret
current experiences and enable
individuals to meet or be overwhelmed by
the everyday challenges of existence
Humanistic-Existential
Theory
• Primary Humanistic Theorists: Abraham
Maslow and Carl Rogers
• Believed that the motivation for behavior
comes from a person’s unique
tendencies, both innate and learned
• The motivation for behavior is to develop
and change in positive directions toward
the goal of self-actualization
Humanistic-Existential
Theory
• Self-Actualization is the constant striving to
realize one’s inherent potential to fully develop
one’s capacities and talents
• Since people are unique they must follow
unique paths to reach self-actualization
• Drive for self-actualization at times comes into
conflict with the need for approval from the self
and others, especially when the person feels
that certain obligations or conditions must be
met in order to gain approval—This is one of
the main threats to personality development
Humanistic-Existential
Theory
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
– In order to progress towards the higher
psychological need of self-actualization we
must progress through other needs first
starting with our most basic survival needs
Self-Actualization
• Esteem needs- achievement, competence,
approval, prestige, status
• Love and belonging—love and acceptance
through intimate relationships, social groups,
and friends
• Safety needs—protection from physical and
social environment by means of clothing,
housing, and security
• Biological needs—water, food, elimination,
warmth, rest, avoidance of pain, sexual
release
HumanisticExistential Theory
Where are you on the
Hierarchy or Needs?
Humanistic-Existential
Theory
• Carl Rogers’s Self Theory
• Defines the self as the center of life
experience
• Self is an ongoing sense of who and what
you are, your sense of how and why you
react to the environment, and how you
choose to act on the environment
• Choices are made based on your values
and morals
Humanistic-Existential
Theory
• Rogers viewed people as unique and with completely
different perspectives
• Self-concepts consist of our impressions of ourselves
and our evaluations of our adequacy
• We view ourselves in terms of frames of reference
which are our unique perceptions and attitudes of
ourselves
• This is how we organize and understand our world, our
perceptions, our experiences
– Every situation that occurs you eventually put a frame of
reference around it so that it makes sense to you
– When we are confused it takes us longer to place a frame
around the situation
– Ex: Men arrive at your door with masks on
Humanistic-Existential
Theory
• In addition to self-concept, Rogers stated we develop
self-esteem(self-regard)
• Development of self-esteem starts during childhood
• Children are said to develop high self-esteem when
parents show them Unconditional positive regard
– U.P.R. refers to acceptance of the child regardless of their
behavior at the moment
• Those who are shown Conditional positive regard are
said to develop low self-esteem or conditions of worth
– Child is shown affection only when they behave in the
desired manner. Child believes they are only worthy of love
if the behave in certain ways or meet certain standards
Humanistic-Existential
Theory: Healthy
Personality
• Experience life here
and now
• Must be open to new
experience
• Be able to express
their feelings and
ideas
• Are their own person
• Trust their intuitive
feelings
• Engage in
meaningful activities
to enhance life
• Capable of major
change in their lives
Personality and
Human Diversity
Sociocultural Theory
Sociocultural Theory
• View that focuses on the roles of ethnicity,
gender, culture, and socioeconomic
status in the development of personality,
behavior, and adjustment
• EX: Here now vs. there then
• Hannah, the Korean American teenager
Sociocultural Theory
• Individualist is a person who defines
her/himself in terms of personal traits and gives
priority to her/his own goals
– Tend to be those from the US or northern European
nations
• Collectivist is a person who defines
her/himself in terms of relationships to other
people and groups and gives priority to group
goals
– Cultures in Africa, Asia, and Central and South
America tend to be more group oriented and comply
with group norms and demands