Diabstraksikan oleh:
soemarno, psdl ppsub, desember 2012
INDEKS KELESTARIAN
LINGKUNGAN
=
Environmental
Sustainability Index
KUANTITAS AIR
Bahan Kajian pada MK. PSDAL
DOMESTIC WATER QUANTITY, SERVICE LEVEL AND HEALTH
The quantity of water delivered and used for households is an important aspect of domestic
water supplies, which influences hygiene and therefore public health.
Summary of requirement for water service level to promote health
Service level
Access measure
Needs met
Level of health
concern
No access (quantity
collected often
below 5 l/c/d)
More than 1000m or
30 minutes total
collection time
Consumption – cannot be assured
Hygiene – not possible (unless
practised at source)
Very high
Basic access
(average quantity
unlikely to exceed
20 l/c/d)
Between 100 and
1000m or 5 to 30
minutes total
collection time
Consumption – should be assured
Hygiene – handwashing and basic food
hygiene possible; laundry/
bathing difficult to assure unless
carried out at source
High
Intermediate access
(average quantity
about 50 l/c/d)
Water delivered
through one tap onplot
(or within 100m
or 5 minutes total
collection time
Consumption – assured
Hygiene – all basic personal and food
hygiene assured; laundry and bathing
should also be assured
Low
Optimal access
(average quantity
100 l/c/d and above)
Water supplied
through multiple taps
continuously
Consumption – all needs met
Hygiene – all needs should be met
Very Low
Diunduh dari: http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/diseases/wsh0302/en/ ……………… 4/12/2012
WATER QUANTITY ESTIMATION
The quantity of water required for municipal uses for which the water
supply scheme has to be designed requires following data:
1. Water consumption rate (Per Capita Demand in litres per day per
head)
2. Population to be served.
Quantity= Per capita demand x Population
Water Consumption Rate
It is very difficult to precisely assess the quantity of water demanded by
the public, since there are many variable factors affecting water
consumption. The various types of water demands, which a city may
have, may be broken into following classes:
Water Consumption for Various Purposes:
Diunduh dari: http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IIT-KANPUR/wasteWater/Lecture%202.htm ………………
WATER CONSUMPTION FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES
Types of Consumption
Normal Range
(lit/capita/day)
Average
%
1 Domestic Consumption
65-300
160
35
2 Industrial and
Commercial Demand
45-450
135
30
3 Public Uses including Fire
Demand
20-90
45
10
4 Losses and Waste
45-150
62
25
Diunduh dari: http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IIT-KANPUR/wasteWater/Lecture%202.htm………………
FIRE FIGHTING DEMAND
The per capita fire demand is very less on an average basis but the rate at
which the water is required is very large.
The rate of fire demand is sometimes traeted as a function of population
and is worked out from following empirical formulae:
Authority
Formulae (P in thousand)
Q for 1 lakh
Population)
Q (L/min)=4637 ÖP (1-0.01 ÖP)
41760
1
American
Insurance
Association
2
Kuchling's Formula Q (L/min)=3182 ÖP
31800
3
Freeman's Formula Q (L/min)= 1136.5(P/5+10)
35050
31623
4
Ministry of Urban
Development
Manual Formula
Q (kilo liters/d)=100 ÖP for P>50000
Diunduh dari: http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IIT-KANPUR/wasteWater/Lecture%202.htm………………
FACTORS AFFECTING PER CAPITA DEMAND:
1. Size of the city: Per capita demand for big cities is generally large as
compared to that for smaller towns as big cities have sewered houses.
2. Adanya industri-industri.
3. Kondisi iklim.
4. Perilaku kebiasaan orang dan status ekonominya.
5. Kualitas air: If water is aesthetically $ medically safe, the consumption
will increase as people will not resort to private wells, etc.
6. Pressure in the distribution system.
7. Efficiency of water works administration: Leaks in water mains and
services; and unauthorised use of water can be kept to a minimum by
surveys.
8. Biaya air.
9. Policy of metering and charging method: Water tax is charged in two
different ways: on the basis of meter reading and on the basis of certain
fixed monthly rate.
Diunduh dari: http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IIT-KANPUR/wasteWater/Lecture%202.htm………………
FLUCTUATIONS IN RATE OF DEMAND
Average Daily Per Capita Demand
= Quantity Required in 12 Months/ (365 x Population)
If this average demand is supplied at all the times, it will not be sufficient to meet the
fluctuations.
1. Seasonal variation: The demand peaks during summer. Firebreak outs are
generally more in summer, increasing demand. So, there is seasonal variation .
2. Daily variation depends on the activity. People draw out more water on Sundays
and Festival days, thus increasing demand on these days.
3. Hourly variations are very important as they have a wide range. During active
household working hours i.e. from six to ten in the morning and four to eight in the
evening, the bulk of the daily requirement is taken. During other hours the
requirement is negligible. Moreover, if a fire breaks out, a huge quantity of water is
required to be supplied during short duration, necessitating the need for a
maximum rate of hourly supply.
Diunduh dari: http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IIT-KANPUR/wasteWater/Lecture%202.htm………………
FLUCTUATIONS IN RATE OF DEMAND
The adequate quantity of water must be available to meet the peak demand. To
meet all the fluctuations, the supply pipes, service reservoirs and distribution pipes
must be properly proportioned.
The water is supplied by pumping directly and the pumps and distribution system
must be designed to meet the peak demand. The effect of monthly variation
influences the design of storage reservoirs and the hourly variations influences the
design of pumps and service reservoirs.
As the population decreases, the fluctuation rate increases.
Maximum daily demand = 1.8 x average daily demand
Maximum hourly demand of maximum day i.e. Peak demand
= 1.5 x average hourly demand
= 1.5 x Maximum daily demand/24
= 1.5 x (1.8 x average daily demand)/24
= 2.7 x average daily demand/24
= 2.7 x annual average hourly demand
Diunduh dari: http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IIT-KANPUR/wasteWater/Lecture%202.htm………………
DESIGN PERIODS & POPULATION FORECAST
This quantity should be worked out with due provision for the
estimated requirements of the future . The future period for which a
provision is made in the water supply scheme is known as the design
period.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Design period is estimated based on the following:
Useful life of the component, considering obsolescence, wear, tear,
etc.
Expandability aspect.
Anticipated rate of growth of population, including industrial,
commercial developments & migration-immigration.
Available resources.
Performance of the system during initial period.
Diunduh dari: http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IIT-KANPUR/wasteWater/Lecture%202.htm………………
WATER QUANTITY STRESS
The word stress is used to talk about problems with water quantity, or the
ability of a drinking water system to supply enough water.
It is important to understand when, where and how water is leaving a drinking
water source and compare it to how quickly that source can be naturally
replenished. It is also important to look at water takings and water supply
trends.
What results from looking at all of these factors is a water budget, which is
useful in predicting water supply shortages and planning for those shortages.
Water quantity stresses can lead to water quality issues as too little water in a
source can mean contaminants are more concentrated and therefore, may be
above acceptable levels.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Water quantity stressors include :
water that is taken by municipalities for drinking water;
water that is taken by industry for manufacturing processing;
water that is taken by business for activities such as food and beverage
processing;
water that is taken by agricultural for irrigation;
private well use.
Diunduh dari:
https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:qlbP8LaJgEgJ:www.conservation-ontario.on.ca/… 4/12/2012
POTENTIAL WATER QUANTITY ISSUES
Taking too much water from a source of water, such as a surface water
body or aquifer, can mean that the water source is stressed.
This may develop into to a water quantity issue should more water be
taken from a source than can be naturally replenished.
Some of the common reasons for taking water include:
1. Municipal water takings for domestic, industrial, commercial and
institutional use
2. Agricultural water takings
3. Private wells taking water for domestic use
4. Industrial takings such as for aggregate extraction, mining, forestry,
food processing,
5. bottled water and greenhouse operations
6. Recreational takings such as for golf courses and bait harvesters in
some areas.
Diunduh dari:
https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:qlbP8LaJgEgJ:www.conservation-ontario.on.ca/… 4/12/2012
THE THINGS TO PROTECT WATER:
1. Conserve water. Not only is conserving water helpful to maintaining a constant supply of drinking water,
too little water in a source can mean contaminants are more concentrated and, therefore, may be above
acceptable levels.
2. Be an avid recycler. Recycling paper products, glass, metals and plastics cuts down on pollution and also
reduces the amount of water we use. Manufacturing recycled paper uses 58% less water than making paper
from virgin wood pulp. Making glass from recycled materials cuts related air pollution 20% and water
pollution 50%.
3. Dispose of hazardous waste properly. Take unused paints, cleaners, pesticides, and medical prescriptions
to your local hazardous waste facility. Take used engine oil to recycling facilities. Use drop cloths or tarps
when working with hazardous materials such as paints, driveway sealers or wood stain to prevent spills
from leaking into the ground. If a spill occurs, clean it up with an absorbent material such as kitty litter or
sawdust and scoop the contaminant into a container.
4. Use non-toxic products for cleaning and environmentally-friendly soaps, shampoos and personal care
products. Remember that what you use in your house goes back down your drain.
5. Clean up pet waste which contains nutrients and pathogens that can run into storm sewers during a rain
storm.
6. Prevent pollutants from entering into runoff by reducing or eliminating the use of pesticides, fertilizers,
sidewalk salts and by not over-watering your lawn. If you run an agricultural operation and haven’t
already, consider developing and implementing a Nutrient Management Plan.
7. Take care when refueling gas tanks for cars, lawn mowers, chainsaws, weed trimmers, tractors or other
machinery to avoid spilling fuel on the ground. Also take care when changing engine oil. One litre of gas or
oil can contaminate a million litres of groundwater.
8. Take your car to commercial car washes designed to prevent pollutant runoff from entering storm sewers.
Use commercial car washes that use water efficient sprays, reducing their water consumption
Diunduh dari:
https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:qlbP8LaJgEgJ:www.conservation-ontario.on.ca/… 4/12/2012
SOME WAYS TO PROTECT WATER FOR THOSE WHO LIVE ON RURAL
PROPERTIES INCLUDE:
1. Keep your septic system in proper working order and empty the tank
regularly.
2. Protect and maintain your private well. Wells provide pathways for
contaminants to enter the groundwater. If you have a well, be sure it
is sealed properly and if you own a well you no longer use, have it
properly decommissioned by a licensed well technician. Test your
well water regularly to ensure the water is safe to drink.
3. Manage animal waste on farms to prevent water contamination.
4. Manage livestock grazing. Overgrazing exposes soil and increases
erosion.
5. Protect the vegetation along the banks of ponds, streams and lakes to
help control erosion, provide food for aquatic life, and maintain
cooler water temperatures necessary for some species of fish.
Diunduh dari:
https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:qlbP8LaJgEgJ:www.conservation-ontario.on.ca/… 4/12/2012
WATER QUANTITY EVALUATION
Water quantity is evaluated differently for rivers and streams, lakes and
groundwater.
1. Rivers and streams. Streamflow hydrographs record data from gauges installed
in waterways, indicating how much water flows past a fixed point, over time.
2. Lakes. Lake bathymetry uses sonar devices to measure variations in water depth,
then links this measurement to the lake's surface area and volume change with
depth. This allows for estimates of water gained and lost as the lake's level goes up or
down. Bathymetric surveys are commercially available for many Alberta lakes.
3. Groundwater . Difficult to quantify because of geological variables, but can be
achieved using computer flow modeling. A pump test can demonstrate the
sustainable productivity of a single, groundwater well. However the groundwater
resource of an entire area is at best an approximation.
4. Precipitation . Alberta Environment and its stakeholders have a network of
precipitation gauges throughout the province, providing a good measure of
distribution and quantity of the province's rainfall. This is critical in evaluating
potential water availability. Alberta also collects real time precipitation from many
stations and regularly produces summary maps of the province-wide distribution of
precipitation.
Diunduh dari: http://environment.alberta.ca/01555.html ……………… 4/12/2012
Freshwater Resources
Diunduh dari: facstaff.gpc.edu/~apennima/ENVS/Freshwater.ppt
Air
• Importance of water for human, animals,
plants:
• Humans, and other organisms, are mostly water.
– Water
• ~ 60% body weight in male
• ~ 55% body weight in female.
– Intracellular water
• cytoplasm = water, proteins, salts
– Intercellular fluid
• Blood plasma, cerebrospinal fluid, etc.
Diunduh dari: facstaff.gpc.edu/~apennima/ENVS/Freshwater.ppt
Sifat Fisika & Kimia Air
• Hydrogen bonding,
– forces of attraction
between molecules
account for other
properties
Diunduh dari: facstaff.gpc.edu/~apennima/ENVS/Freshwater.ppt
Sifat Fisika & Kimia Air
• Liquid over wide temperature range
– which happens to correspond to temps on Earth
• High specific heat, changes temperature slowly
– Holds & carries much heat energy in large water bodies
– High heat of vaporization,
– Heat recovered when water condenses, heat of
condensation
• Solvent
– Dissolves wide variety of substances
• Expands when freezes (ice floats!)
Diunduh dari: facstaff.gpc.edu/~apennima/ENVS/Freshwater.ppt
Distribusi Air Tawar
• Surface water
– lakes, streams, rivers,
wetlands
– Watershed, drainage
basin
Diunduh dari: facstaff.gpc.edu/~apennima/ENVS/Freshwater.ppt
Distribusi Air Tawar
• Groundwater
– Water that has infiltrated
through soil into deeper,
porous sediments & rock
in sand, sandstone,
volcanic ash layers
– usually below “water
table”
– Recharge area
Diunduh dari: facstaff.gpc.edu/~apennima/ENVS/Freshwater.ppt
Penggunaan Air Tawar
• Agriculture:
– worldwide 70% of surface water used on 17% of
cropland.
– 60-80% evaporates or seeps below roots, wasted
Diunduh dari: facstaff.gpc.edu/~apennima/ENVS/Freshwater.ppt
Penggunaan Air Tawar
• Industry: ~ 20%
– Solvent, Cleaner, Coolant
– Essential part of product
Diunduh dari: facstaff.gpc.edu/~apennima/ENVS/Freshwater.ppt
Penggunaan Air Tawar
• Domestic/Residential & civic use: ~ 10%
– Drinking and food preparation
– Fountains, pools, lawns, parks, golf courses
– Flushing sewage
Diunduh dari: facstaff.gpc.edu/~apennima/ENVS/Freshwater.ppt
Sumberdaya Air Tawar
• In USA
– Distribution of population
– Distribution of freshwater
Diunduh dari: facstaff.gpc.edu/~apennima/ENVS/Freshwater.ppt
Kelangkaan Air Tawar
• Causes:
– Dry climate
– Drought
• time period of rainfall deficit and/or high evaporation
– Desiccation
• loss of soil moisture because of deforestation,
overgrazing, etc. May cause higher evaporation &
failure of recharge.
– Water stress
• low per capita availability. Too many people/ water
Diunduh dari: facstaff.gpc.edu/~apennima/ENVS/Freshwater.ppt
Kelangkaan Air Tawar
• Causes:
–
–
–
–
Dry climate
Drought
Desiccation
Water stress
Diunduh dari: facstaff.gpc.edu/~apennima/ENVS/Freshwater.ppt
Kelangkaan Air Tawar
• Depletion of surface
water
– Colorado River
Diunduh dari: facstaff.gpc.edu/~apennima/ENVS/Freshwater.ppt
Kelangkaan Air Tawar
• Depletion of surface
water
– Colorado River
Diunduh dari: facstaff.gpc.edu/~apennima/ENVS/Freshwater.ppt
Kelangkaan Air Tawar
• Depletion of ground
water
– Ogallala Aquifer
• World’s largest
Diunduh dari: facstaff.gpc.edu/~apennima/ENVS/Freshwater.ppt
Peningkatan suplai air
• Build dams, reservoirs
• Bring water from elsewhere
– pipes, aqueducts
• Withdraw groundwater
• Desalination
• Improve efficiency (stop waste)
Diunduh dari: facstaff.gpc.edu/~apennima/ENVS/Freshwater.ppt
Peningkatan suplai air
• Build dams, reservoirs (Buford Dam, Lake
Lanier)
– Benefits
•
•
•
•
•
Hydroelectric power
Irrigation
Control flooding
Source of water for cities, industry etc.
Recreation
Diunduh dari: facstaff.gpc.edu/~apennima/ENVS/Freshwater.ppt
Peningkatan suplai air
• Build dams, reservoirs
– Drawbacks
• reduce downstream flow,
– habitat loss in river & estuary
– Deprives people downstream of “their” water: AL, FL, GA
• flood valleys upstream,
– farmland, forests, people displaced
• weight of dam + reservoir alters geology,
–  earthquakes
• siltation fills reservoir
• dam failure  catastrophic flood
– Johnstown Flood, PA. 31 May 1889
10 April 2009
Freshwater.ppt
Diunduh dari: facstaff.gpc.edu/~apennima/ENVS/Freshwater.ppt
32
Peningkatan suplai air
• Bring water from elsewhere
– Benefits
• irrigation
• source for cities, industry
– Drawbacks
• Costs of pipelines, pumps, etc.
• Habitat loss
• Depletion of another resource
– Mono Lake, CA
– Aral Sea
Diunduh dari: facstaff.gpc.edu/~apennima/ENVS/Freshwater.ppt
Peningkatan suplai air
1. Withdraw groundwater
2. Desalination
3. Improve efficiency (stop waste)
Diunduh dari: facstaff.gpc.edu/~apennima/ENVS/Freshwater.ppt
FRESHWATER RESOURCES
United Nations Environment Programme
Diunduh dari: api.ning.com/files/..._/FRESHWATERRESOURCES.ppt
Agenda 21's freshwater management guidelines
1. Integrated water resources development and management;
2. Water resources assessment;
3. Protection of water resources, water quality and aquatic
ecosystems;
4. Drinking-water supply and sanitation;
5. Water and sustainable urban development;
6. Water for sustainable food production and rural development;
and
7. The impact of climate change on water resources.
Diunduh dari: api.ning.com/files/..._/FRESHWATERRESOURCES.ppt
Diunduh dari: api.ning.com/files/..._/FRESHWATERRESOURCES.ppt
Estimasi Sumberdaya Air Global
• The total volume of water on Earth is ~1.4 billion km3.
• freshwater resources is ~35 million km3, or about 2.5% of the total
volume.
• The total usable freshwater supply for ecosystems and humans is
~200 000 km3 of water, which is < 1% of all freshwater resources,
and only 0.01% of all the water on Earth
• (Gleick, 1993; Shiklomanov, 1999).
Diunduh dari: api.ning.com/files/..._/FRESHWATERRESOURCES.ppt
Global Freshwater Resources: Quantity and Distribution by Region
• Of these freshwater
resources, ~24 million
km3
• 68.9% is in the form of
ice and permanent
snow cover in
mountainous regions,
the Antarctic and
Arctic regions.
Diunduh dari: api.ning.com/files/..._/FRESHWATERRESOURCES.ppt
Global Freshwater Resources: Quantity and Distribution by Region
• Some 8 million km3 or
30.8% is stored
underground in the form
of groundwater (shallow
and deep groundwater
basins up to 2 000
metres, soil moisture,
swamp water and
permafrost).
• This constitutes about
97% of all the freshwater
that is potentially
available for human use.
Diunduh dari: api.ning.com/files/..._/FRESHWATERRESOURCES.ppt
DAS utama di dunia
Rivers - an estimated
263 international
river basins
covering 45.3% of
the land surface
area of the earth,
excluding
Antarctica.
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Diunduh dari: api.ning.com/files/..._/FRESHWATERRESOURCES.ppt
I
It is estimated that the freshwater available for human consumption varies
between 12 500 km3 and 14 000 km3 each year
Diunduh dari: api.ning.com/files/..._/FRESHWATERRESOURCES.ppt
Biological Oxygen Demand 1976-2000
Biological oxygen demand is an indicator of the organic pollution of freshwater
Diunduh dari: api.ning.com/files/..._/FRESHWATERRESOURCES.ppt
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