Hilgard and Bower’s Definition of Learning
• Relatively permanent change in a subject’s
behavior to a given situation brought about by
his/her repeated experiences in that situation,
provided that the behavior change cannot be
explained on the basis of native response
tendencies, maturation, or temporary states of
the subject (fatigue, drugs, etc.)
Learning
Process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or
behaviors
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•
•
•
•
•
Adapt
Expect
Repeat
Avoid
Observation
Language
We learn by association – we connect events
Habituation vs. Sensory Adaptation
• Habituation – involves diminished response.
• Sensory Adaptation – Sensory systems stops registering the
presence of an unchanging stimulus
• Habituation is a learning process
Associative Learning
Linking 2 events that occur close together.
This process is called CONDITIONIONG
CONDITIONING
I.
Classical conditioning – we learn to associate 2 stimuli and thus to
anticipate events
II. Operant conditioning- learn to associate a response and its
consequences.
Repeat if followed by good results
Avoid if act followed by bad results
COGNITIVE LEARNING
I.
Observational learning
Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov
John B Watson – Little Albert
Behaviorism
Conditioning Process
US = UR
NS + US = UR
CS = CR
5 Conditioning Processes
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Acquisition
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
Generalization
Discrimination
• Conditioning helps animals survive and reproduce by
responding to cues that help it gain food, avoid danger, locate
mates, produce offspring.
• Higher order conditioning (second order conditioning)
• We are talking about generalization and extinction here (CC)
but they show up in other learning too.
#1
1. Carter’s goldfish has been classically conditioned to swim to
the top of the fish tank every time the light is turned on.
This happened because Carter always turns on the light n
the room just before feeding the fish. Identify what each of
the following would be in this example. Making sure you
explain why you know your identification is correct
2. Conditioned Response (CR)
3. Conditioned stimulus (CS)
4. Unconditioned stimulus (US
#2
• A researcher paired the sound of a whistle with an air puff to
the eye to classically condition Ashley to blink when the
whistle alone was sounded. Explain how the research could
demonstrate the following:
• Generalization
• Extinction
• Spontaneous Recovery
Operant Conditioning
Classical Conditioning came first but operant conditioning has a
large impact on our day to day lives
Classical Conditioning forms associations between stimuli (CS
and US). It also involves respondent behavior or actions that
are automatic responses to stimuli.
In Operant Conditioning – organisms associate their own actions
with consequences.
Actions followed by Reinforcers increase ( ) behaviors
Actions followed by punishers decrease ( ) behaviors
People to know
Behavior that operates on the environment to produce
rewarding or punishing stimuli is called Operant Behavior
Big Names:
Edward Thorndike-Law of Effect
Rewarded behavior is likely to recur.
Puzzle box
BF Skinner-Operant Chamber “Skinner Box”
Reinforcement and Behavior
Reinforcement – any event that strengthens a preceding
response
Reinforcer depends on organism and environment.
Animals: food/water ( but they have to be thirsty
Humans: May be praise, attention, paycheck.
Shaping Behavior – reinforces gradually guide behavior toward
closer and closer approximation of the desired behavior.
Animal Training
Types of Reinforcers
Positive (+) Reinforcers (+R) – Strengthens a response by adding
a desirable stimulus.
Negative (-) Reinforcers (-R) – Strengthens an response by
removing an aversive stimulus
Operant
Conditioning Term
Description
Example
Positive
Reinforcement (+R)
Add a desirable
stimulus
Pet a dog that comes when you call
Pay the person who paints your house
Negative
Reinforcement (-R)
Remove an aversive
stimulus
Take painkillers to end pain
Fasten seat belt to end loud beeping
Practice
1. Pet a dog that comes when you call
Behavior (B)
Consequence (C)
Come when call
Pet
2. Pay the person who paints your house
B
C
Paint
Pay
3. Take painkillers to end pain
B
C
Take Painkiller
End Pain
4. Fasten seat belt to end loud beeping
B
C
Fasten seatbelt
End beeping
Important Note!
Negative Reinforcement is NOT punishment
Negative Reinforcement removes a punishing or
aversive effect
It provides “relief”
Reinforcers
Primary Reinforcer – One that satisfies a biological need.
Food, Water, Sex, Pleasure Etc.
Secondary Reinforcer – One associated with primary reinforcer
Money, good grades, pleasant tone
Delayed Gratification
Animals: if delay of reinforcer lasts longer than 30 seconds after
behavior, will not work as reinforcer.
Humans: Can respond to delayed gratification
Delayed Gratification is the key!
Delayed Gratification = Social competent and high achieving
adults
Reinforcement Schedules
I. Continuous Reinforcement
Learning is rapid and extinction occurs rapidly
II. Partial Reinforcement (intermittent)
Learning is slower and resistance to extinction is greater.
A. Fixed ratio: Reinforce behavior after a set # of responses
Free drink every 10 drinks
B. Variable ratio: Reinforce behavior after an unknown # of
response. Slot machines
C. Fixed Interval: First response is rewarded after fixed time
period. Paid every 2 weeks
D. Variable Interval : First response is rewarded after
unknown
time period. Pop Quiz
Reinforcement Schedules
Punishment
A punisher is any consequence that decreases the frequency of
the preceding behavior.
The key to punishment is swift and sure. Research has shown
the the severity of the punishment has less impact than the
consistency and the immediacy of the punishment in decreasing
behaviors
Type
Description
Examples
Positive
Punishment
Administer an aversive Spray water on a barking dog.
stimulus
Give a traffic ticket for speeding.
Negative
Punishment
Withdraw a rewarding
stimulus
Take away a teen’s driving
privileges for coming home late.
Revoke a library card for nonpayment of fines
Drawbacks to Punishment
1.
2.
3.
4.
Suppressed not forgotten
Teaches discrimination among situations
Can teach fear (generalization)
Physical punishment increases aggression through modeling
Punishment tells you what not to do
Reinforcers tell you what to do
Skinner’s Legacy
BF Skinner – Behaviorists
• “External (not thoughts or feelings)
shape our behaviors.
Critics
• Dehumanize
• Neglect personal freedom
• Seeking to control people thru
operant actions.
Practice
Mom is frustrated because 3-year old Maya has started to spit
frequently. She has decided to temporarily put away one of
Maya’s toys every time she spits. Mom is going to continue this
until Maya has stopped spitting.
A. Explain whether Mom's plan uses reinforcement or
punishment
B. Explain whether Mom’s plan is a positive or negative force
of reinforcement or punishment.
Explain means to TELL ME WHY.
Operant Applications
School
Skinner: “Right or Wrong” immediately
If right…need to take the next step and build
Electronic quizzing, apps, etc.
Sports
Reinforcing small successes and gradually increasing the challenge
Ex: Golf, Baseball
Accidental timing of rewards can produce superstitious behaviors
Work
Reward specific achievable behaviors, not vaguely defined “merit”. Rewards should be
immediate
IBM
Home
Notice people doing something right and affirm them for it.
Self Improvement
Measurable goal, Monitor behavior, Reinforce desired behavior, Reduce rewards gradually
Bio-feedback
Watching own physiological changes. Works best on tension headaches.
Classical vs. Operant Conditioning
Classical
• Respondent
Behavior
• Respond
Automatically
• Associate different
stimuli we do not
control
vs.
Operant
Associative learning
Acquisition
Extinction
Spontaneous recovery
Generalization
Discrimination
Associate our
own behaviors
that act on
environment with
reinforcing or
punishing stimuli.
The stimuli is the
consequence.
Biology, Conditioning and
Learning
Limits on classical conditioning
• An animals capacity for conditioning is constrained by its
biology. An animal’s predispositions prepare it to learn the
associations that enhance its survival (Garcia 1966) 3:03
• Humans too, seem biologically prepared to learn some
associations rather than others. Violently ill after seafood:
• We seem to have an aversion to taste, not the sight or smell
• Birds, which hunt by sight develop aversion to the sight
• Learning occurs rapidly because our biology prepares us to
learn aversions to toxic foods.
Biology and survival
Food Aversion and Animals
• Coyotes and sheep farmers (win/win?)
• Evolution (Darwin); Our ancestors who readily learned taste
aversions were unlikely to eat the same toxic food again, thus
survive, thus leave descendants.
• Organisms learn behavior favored by natural selection
• Red and sexuality
•
•
•
•
•
•
Female primate display red near ovulation
Human females, enhanced blood flow produces the red bulsh of flirtation
Valentine’s hearts?
Red light districts?
Red lipstick?
Red clothing seems to make both men and women more attractive to the
opposite sex
Limits on Operant
Conditioning
• Biological constraints predispose
organisms to learn association that are
naturally adaptive
• Training that attempts to override
biological constranits will probably not
endure because animals will revert to
predisposed patterns.
• Pigions: Flap wings to ovoid being
shocked and peck to obtain foods
more difficualt to peck to avoid being
shocked or flap wings to obtain food.
Cognition’s Influence on
Conditioning
• Pavlov and Skinner
underestimated the importance
of thoughts, perceptions,
expectations.
• Cartoon characters next to ice
cream or Brussels sprouts?
• Ice cream!
• Antiabuse to stop drinking
• Antiabuse is the problem
Learning
• Edward Tolman 1930 discovered latent learning
• Latent learning: Learning that occurs but is not apparent until
there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
• Cognitive map: A mental representation of the layout of ones
environment (2:07)
• Insight Learning: A sudden realization of a problem’s solution
(1:10)
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic
• Intrinsic motivation: A desire to perform a behavior effectively
for its own sake. External rewards can lead to the decrease of
desired behavior. The thought is “ If I have to be bribed into
doing this, it must not be worth doing for it’s own sake”.
• The overuse of bribes, leading to external control rather than
internal appeal = overjustification
• Extrinsic Motivation: A desire to perform a behavior to receive
promised reward or avoid threatened punishment
Learning and Personal Control
Coping: alleviating stress using emotion cognition or behavioral
methods
• Problem focused coping: Attempting to alleviate stress directly by
changing the stressor or the way we interact with the stressor
• Sense of control over situation
• Emotion focused coping: Attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding
or ignoring a stressor and attend to emotional needs related to one’s
stress reaction
• Can be distracting (good) also maladaptive
• Activity
Learned Helplessness
• The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human
learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events
Observational Learning
• Cognition is certainly a factor in Observational Learning
• Observational Learning: Higher animals, esp humans learn
without direct experience, by watching a imitating others
• Observing and imitating others is called modeling.
• Albert Bandura
• Mirror Neurons
Applications of Observational
Learning
• Prosocial Effects (positive, Helpful)
• Positive constructive helpful behavior.
• Antisocial Effect: ( negative, Destructive)
• Aggression and violence
• If a model’s actions and words are inconsistent, children may
imitate the hypocrisy they observe.
Practice #1
• Explain how Bandura’s Bobo doll
experiment illustrates each of the
following
• Modeling
• Mirror Neurons
Practice #2
• A young boy is left at home with his older
brother while their parents drop off the family
car for repairs. While the parents are out, the
older brother prepares lunch for the young boy.
The the older brother takes the younger brother
outside where he entertains him by building
several fires with small twigs. Explain how the
older brother’s conduct is
• Prosocial modeling
• Antisocial modeling