LHE 3301
ETIKA
&
FALSAFAH MORAL
Prof Dr Abdul Rahman Md Aroff
It is usually supposed that
psychology contributes to
moral education by telling us
appropriate methods of moral
teaching and learning (Kohlberg)
“How does the child
develop morally?”:
There are several
accounts/theories of
moral development
The domain of the moral begins
where the domain of the social
begins (Durkheim)
The process of (moral) valuing
is mainly social. People are
influenced by and act in
particular social contexts(Superka)
If we do not know what
morality is, we cannot
teach it (Puka)
“What is the (plural)
nature of Malaysian
society?”
“What is ethics?” There
are many meanings
attributed to morality
Disagreement over the conception and function of moral education. i.e. a
wide variety of methods proposed and used for the teaching or
transmitting of morality
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FOKUS ETIKA
Pernyataan
Bukan Normatif atau
Deskriptif
(Fakta)
Normatif
(Nilai)
Bukan Moral
(estetika, agama, politik,
sosial, ekonomi, intelek,
material)
Moral
Ciri
Fungsi
Nilai ditonjol secara
lisan atau perlakuan
Satu piawai asas
yang tekal,
membantu dan
mencorak pemikiran,
perasaan dan
perlakuan kita
Nilai ‘boleh’ berubah
Keutamaan nilai tidak
sama bagi individu
yang berbeza
Jenis
Instrumental
Intrinsik
Subjektif
Objektif
Relatif
Mutlak
Which of the following are NORMATIVE statements?
• You cannot trust Sandra.
• Many adults are attending college
today.
• Striking workers broke into the plant
last night.
• Not all racists are white.
• A patient with an incompetent doctor is
likely to receive poor care.
Which of the following directives
are outside the scope of ethics?
•
•
•
•
•
•
Never shave with a dull blade
Never shoot guns at people
Use deception if it gets what you want
Use a tie that matches your socks
Don’t neglect your family
Don’t take what does not belong to you
Which statements express
intrinsic / instrumental value?
• Pleasure is the only thing that is good in
itself.
• Money is important not for what it is but for
what it can buy.
• Self-discipline is important because it
purifies the spirit and strengthens the will.
• Wisdom is to be sought for its own sake
Which of the following are subjective statements?
• I don’t like the smell of burning cigar.
• Smoking in hospital rooms interferes
with the patients’ recovery.
• Littering clutters up the environment,
poses a risk to public health, and is
expensive to clean up.
• I don’t approve of littering.
ETIKA
falsafah
etimologi
‘ethos’ (Yunani) atau ‘mores’
(Latin), iaitu hukum, adat
resam, adab, tradisi, budi
pekerti, kesusilaan, sopan
santun, dan sebagainya
Peraturan
Masyarakat
Kemoralan Sosial/
Konvensional/Konservatif
/
Tradisional
Berfikir sendiri tentang apa
itu yang dikatakan baik jahat,
benar salah, tanggungjawab
atau ‘duty’, tentang apa yang
patut atau tidak patut
dilakukan, dan sebagainya
falsafah moral
Keperibadian
Teleologi
Etika Keperibadian
Mulia
(Virtues/Fadhilah)
Utilitarianisme
Egoisme
emotivisme
Deontologi
Prinsip Kewajipan
Eksistensialisme
intuisionisme
KEMORALAN SOSIAL
Maksud
Pematuhan kepada peraturan komuniti yang ditetapkan oleh autoriti
dalam masyarakat, oleh itu, keperluan masyarakat, bukan individu,
merupakan matlamat etika.
Kritikan
bersifat autoritarian, justeru melemahkan autonomi, pertimbangan
bebas serta pilihan sukarela individu dan mengakibatkan individu itu
menurut perintah secara membuta tuli.
kehilangan perasaan tanggungjawab moral.
relativisme kebudayaan boleh membawa kepada konflik.
penguatkuasaan bergantung atas isbat (hukuman) yang boleh hilang
kuasanya. Buat apa yang aku suruh, jangan buat apa yang…
kesukaran menyesuaikan peraturan masyarakat dengan situasi baru
di persada dunia yang kompleks di mana masa dan keadaan sentiasa
berubah dan terdapat banyak persoalan yang menjadi dilema bagi
kebanyakan orang.
sesetengah peraturan atau norma masyarakat didapati tidak bermoral.
KEPERIBADIAN MULIA (VIRTUES)
Maksud (Aristotle)
Tret karakter dan sifat perangai yang mulia; kecenderungan bertujuan, bukan perasaan;
tidak bersifat semula jadi, tetapi dimiliki melalui latihan; dan merupakan suatu jalan
tengah.
(purposive dispositions or traits of character; neither feelings nor faculties; not engendered in a
person by nature; and each virtue constitutes a mean)
Jadual Virtues dan Vices Aristotle
Berlebihan
Jalan Tengah
Terlalu Kurang
Kegentaran dan
keyakinan
Kegopohan
Keberanian
Pengecut
Pendapatan dan
perbelanjaan
Pemborosan
Kemurahan hati
Kedekut
Pengucapan diri
Cakap besar
Kebenaran
Merendahkan diri
Panas hati
Kesabaran
Kurang semangat
Kemarahan
Kritikan(keperibadian mulia)




Nasihat yang sukar dipraktiskan (will not bear the
weight of advice, has no practical or advisory force)
Sesetengah nilai mulia perlu berada dalam keadaan
yang keterlaluan atau hanya ada pertentangan (has
no two extremes, it only has an opposite, or an
extreme)
Kesukaran mengkategorikan sesuatu keperibadian
sebagai mulia serta menentukan ciri watak manakah
yang paling utama dan yang manakah pula kurang
penting (categorization of dispositions as virtues)
Sebagai suatu kebiasaan sahaja yang tidak dapat
membimbing seseorang dalam situasi luar biasa
yang menimbulkan dilema moral (just pleasant
habits; complex situations)
UTILITARIANISME
Maksud
Kebahagiaan yang paling banyak kepada sejumlah insan
yang paling ramai
(greatest happiness for the greatest number)
Baik = Kebahagiaan = Keseronokan
Jahat = Kedukaan = Kesakitan
(Good = Happiness = Pleasure
Evil = Unhappiness = Pain)
(kritikan - utilitarianisme)
Manusia dikuasai oleh keseronokan dan kesakitan, dan
kemoralan ialah usaha mencari kebahagiaan iaitu
keseronokan, dan kebencian terhadap kesakitan (vs)
masochist; kesakitan, bapa kepada keseronokan
Pengalaman keseronokan mestilah dimaksimumkan dan
kesakitan diminimumkan (vs) Menghukum orang tak
berdosa, 9 atau 10?, irihati/tamak, oleh itu berkonflik
dengan keadilan.
Semua sensasi terdiri daripada sama ada keseronokan
atau kesakitan yang bertentangan (vs) Subjektif dan
kabur.
Mengaitkan keseronokan dengan kebaikan (vs) Kebaikan
= kebebasan, kesihatan > keseronokan; sadist, vandals =
jahat = seronok!
Menyamakan keseronokan dengan kebahagiaan (vs)
kebahagiaan tak khusus tetapi kepuasan yang agak kekal
dan mendalam; a life of pleasure=a happy life?
Yang baik (keseronokan) dan yang jahat (kesakitan) yang
disukat (vs) Urusan yang menyukarkan: kuantiti, kualiti,
masa/tempat, anatara individu
EGOISME
maksud
Sebagai
agen moral tanggungjawab
tunggal individu ialah memperolehi
seberapa banyak keuntungan untuk
diri sendiri
Sebagai penasihat moral (selaku
orang kedua/pihak ketiga) dalam
membuat pertimbangan, dia juga mesti
mengutamakan keuntungan bagi
dirinya sendiri.
Standard/ukuran untuk baik = menguntungkan diri
sendiri; dan jahat = merugikan diri sendiri
Kritikan (egoisme)
Eksploitasi, tidak perlu bermasyarakat dan taat
kepada autoriti, membenci peraturan, organisasi
dan
menentang
pengorbanan
diri
untuk
kecekapan, kekuatan dan kemajuan vs sifat
semula jadi manusia? Jepun! Binatang liar/buas
Untuk wira/superman terus hidup dan terdorong
dia
memerlukan
musuh,
cabaran
dan
penentangan daripada orang kebanyakan yang
mesti dibelenggu
Menentang peraturan mutlak sesuatu autoriti dan
memperakui hanya peraturan yang bersifat
individualistik, iaitu menurut peraturan sendiri
adalah bermoral (prudentialism) vs altruism
Tidak dapat memuaskan prinsip sejagat
Tidak dapat diuar-uarkan
Tidak dapat menjalin hubungan
Tanggungjawab sejarah dalam kebangkitan
pergerakan Nazi
Eksistensialisme
kewujudan mendahului zat dan perubahan adalah
kekal. Oleh itu, individu yang kewujudannya authentic,
bebas sepenuhnya buat apa yang dia suka dalam
menguruskan diri sendiri; tiada apapun yang boleh
membataskan kebebasannya untuk memilih dan
menentukan sendiri tujuan, sikap, nilai dan cara
hidupnya; segala-galanya diizinkan; tiada hukum atau
nilai kudus/objektif yang wajib dipatuhi; nilai bersifat
subjektif, individualistik dan tertakluk kepada situasi;
yang lepas dan yang akan datang tidak penting.
Sekiranya individu itu tidak mahu ‘freedom of choice’,
maka dia hidup dalam ‘nothingness’ dan dia
mempunyai pandangan yang penuh dengan mitos
tentang kemoralan
bad faith = kepercayaan palsu
Kritikan (eksistensialisme)





Menjadikan tindakan seseorang itu benar dengan
hanya memilih tindakan itu – menggalakkan
relativisme individu
Kemungkinan yang dipilih adalah yang desired,
commended dan praised, bukan yang desirable,
commendable, praiseworthy
Tanpa matlamat, ideal atau norma, ia tidak
membimbing dan memberitahu individu apa yang
patut dibuat, individu itu is left hanging in the air
atau terawang-awang
Keputusan first hand biasanya membebankan dan
makan masa
Mustahil, dari segi psikologi, wujudnya freedom of
choice
Kantianism – Prinsip Kewajipan (Duty)
Maksud
tumpuan kemoralan ialah kepada niat atau
tujuan, dan motif kemoralan bukanlah
untuk memuaskan kecenderungan, tetapi
motifnya ialah duty for duty’s sake. Kecuali
tekad baik, tiada yang baik tanpa syarat,
dan individu yang mempunyai tekad baik
ialah individu yang sentiasa bertindak atas
dasar kewajipan yang diperihalkan sebagai
satu set categorical imperatives, iaitu
kesejagatan, kemanusiaan (respect) dan
kerasionalan
Kritikan (Kantianisme)




Tidak boleh berlandaskan
kecenderungan
Prinsip terlalu am, tiada kecualian
Tiada panduan untuk memutuskan
perselisihan antara kewajipan
Kurang kritis tentang konsep yang
mungkin mempunyai makna yang
tersendiri dan berbeza kepada orang
yang berlainan
KANDUNGAN
(Content/Substance)
Keperibadian Mulia
(Virtues)
Pentaakulan Moral
(Moral Reasoning)
Peraturan Masyarakat
(Rules of society)
Konsepsi ETIKA dan
INSAN MORAL
BENTUK
(Form)
Etika Berprinsip
(Principalistic Ethics)
Perasaan Moral
Perlakuan Moral
(Moral Action)
DIMENSI
(3 dimensions: head heart,hand)
(Moral Emotions)
Kandungan Moral
peraturan masyarakat
~memajukan kebajikan dan kestabilan serta survival
masyarakat kerana tercapainya kedamaian,
kerukunan dan social order
~menjimatkan masa dan tenaga
~tindak balas terhadap masyarakat yang permissive
keperibadian mulia
~mengandungi cara bagaimana seseorang itu patut
mengikuti peraturan masyarakatnya
~berfaedah kepada individu yang memilikinya serta
menguntungkan orang lain yang ada hubungan
dengan individu itu
Bentuk Moral
prinsip > situasi
~mengurangkan relativisme dalam soal
moral
~prinsip (keadilan & kepedulian) tidak
ketepikan situasi
Mengapa keadilan & kepedulian?
~nilai asas; ibu nilai; akal dan hati
jika tidak ada…
dimensi
TM
TM
EM
impersonal
TLM
cakap kosong; kelemahan
moral; cakap tak serupa
bikin
EM
irrational
perasaan menenangkan
diri sendiri
TLM
taat membabi
buta; tanggungjawab moral
diabaikan
impersonal
Individu yang peka serta memahami tentang
keperluan terhadap peraturan tertentu dalam
organisasinya dan mempunyai keperibadian yang
sesuai untuk dia mentadbir dan mengurus
organisasinya itu.
Dia berhati-hati membuat
pertimbangan/keputusan berdasarkan prinsip
keadilan serta perasaan kepedulian dan dengan
penuh tanggungjawab juga akauntabiliti
mengambil tindakan yang wajar.
Dia juga berkebolehan meneliti situasi dalam
menangani isu moral. Selain itu dia
berketrampilan merungkai konflik moral dalam
membuat keputusan yang ‘informed’ dan terbaik.
Social Morality (conventional/conservative morality
or traditionalism in morality


An externally established code, or a body of fixed
and concrete rules as a standard to be rigidly
conformed to…there are things that are enjoined
and forbidden, approved or disapproved of in a
society
A critique
~in its extreme form, it tends to be authoritarian,
dogmatic and doctrinaire, therefore, undermining
autonomy as well as independent judgment and
voluntary choice, also allows no room for
individual criticism of established values, rules
and the like
criticism of social morality…
~ cultural relativism which could lead
different and incompatible rules to clash
~ difficulty in adopting it (being absolutistic)
to new situations and changing
circumstances
~ may be bad, wrong, unjust or unnecessarily
impoverishing of human life
~ moral sanctions may lose their power
~ narrowing of moral concerns, i.e.
disappearance of a sense of moral
responsibility
• Hedonism, human nature? Masochist?
An obstacle?
• Maximise pleasure, minimise pain scapegoat, 9 or 10, greedy and
envious, therefore, conflict with
justice!
• Subjective and not contradictory
• G=P<Health/Wisdom/Freedom;
Sadists/Vandals=P=E
• H=P?
• Calculus
Objektif Pend Moral 1983

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
KBSR
Mengamalkan tabiat dan tingkah laku yang selaras
dengan sikap dan nilai moral;
Meneyedari tentang nilai yang sedia ada dalam
masyarakat sekelilingnya;
Mempunyai nilai moral sebagai asas
memperkembangkan kematangan pemikiran;
Membuat pertimbangan sebelum mengamalkan
sesuatu tingkah laku, berasaskan prinsip moral; dan
Mengemukakan sebab yang rasional dalam membuat
sesuatu keputusan yang berkaitan dengan isu moral.

KBSM
1. memperkukuh dan mempertingkat amalan tabiat dan
tingkah laku yang selaras dengan sikap dan nilai
moral yang diperolehi pada peringkat sekolah
rendah;
2. menyedari, memahami dan menghayati norma dan
nilai murni masyarakat Malaysia;
3. membentuk pemikiran yang rasional berasaskan
prinsip-prinsip moral;
4. memberi sebab-sebab yang munasabah berdasarkan
pertimbangan moral dalam membuat sesuatu
keputusan; dan
5. menggunakan pertimbangan yang berlandaskan
prinsip-prinsip moral sebagai panduan dalam
amalan kehidupan seharian.
tambahan
dapat mencari dan
mengaplikasikan
pengetahuan fakta
yang perlu dan relevan sebagai
asas dalam membuat
pertimbangan dan keputusan
moral yang ‘informed’
END
other related criticisms…
• encourages individual relativism (I don’t
care what others say!)
• maybe what is chosen is desired,
commended or praised, but not something
which is desirable, commendable or
praiseworthy
• its not possible, psychologically or
physiologically, for freedom of choice to
exist
KANTIANISM
or
The Principle of Duty
In Kant’s view, the following do not
constitute the principle of morality
•
•
•
•
•
The notion of prudence (egoism)
The notion of benevolence (utilitarianism)
Talents of the mind (intelligence, wit, judgement)
Gifts of nature (power, wealth, honour)
Qualities of temperament (courage, resolution,
constancy of purpose)
• Other qualities (such as self-control, sober
reflection, moderation in affections and
passions)
Why?
They are desirable in many
respects. But they are far from
being described properly as good
without qualifications; for, in
certain circumstances, they can
also be bad and hurtful, i.e. when
they are used with a bad will.
In addition, according to Kant, in morality the focus
is placed on one’s motives/intentions, rather than
upon what one actually does
What motives make a good will good are not
inclinations, whether natural or otherwise,
whether or not they are related to selfinterest or to altruistic motives. Acting from
mere inclination or for the purpose of
gratifying one’s inclinations has no moral
worth.
as pointed out by MacIntyre (1976)
Kant never dwells upon the difference
between inclinations to act in one way
rather than another; the whole contrast is
between duty upon the one hand and
inclination of every kind upon the other.
For inclination belongs to our… nature; we
cannot in Kant’s view choose our
inclinations. What we can do is to choose
between our inclinations and our duty.
The good will’s only motive is,
to do its duty simply for the sake of doing
its duty – a will is good because of what it
is inwardly. It is duty for duty’s sake that
is good and worthy of moral praise, and to
do one’s duty for its own sake is also to
act reasonably out of respect for the law.
As Kant says,
“Duty is the necessity to act out of
reverence for the law”.
So, a morally good person, i.e. a person
with absolutely good will is
a person who always acts from duty or out
of reverence for the law, one who would
choose duty and obedience to the law
over inclinations…
This duty or the law is recognised and
represented as a set of moral maxims.
The moral maxims or formulations in
Kant’s principle of morality are popularly
known as the
categorical imperatives
• Act only on the maxim through which you
can at the same time will that it should
become a universal law, or, act as if the
maxim of your action were to become
through your will a universal law of nature.
(Formula of Universal Law)
• Act in such a way that you always treat
humanity whether in your person, or in the
person of any other, never simply as a
means, but always at the same time as an
end.
(Formula of the End in Itself)
• The idea of the will of every rational being
as a will which makes universal law.
(Formula of Autonomy)
The gist of the ethics of Kant
is contained in the assertion that, with the exception of a good
will, nothing is unconditionally good. To quote Kant:
It is impossible to conceive anything at all in
the world, or even out of it, which can be
taken as good without qualification, except
as a good will
the search for a conception of
morality cannot end with Kant
• One reason (criticism) is related to the
concept of duty and inclination. Kant
maintains that a person is still not morally
good if he acts simply from his natural
inclinations, since such an act does not
involve autonomy (reason and free choice). A
person still fails to be decisively good if the
acts which he performs to help others (being
naturally kind, sympathetic, honest, friendly,
for example), are performed not because
duty demands them, but just because he
enjoys performing them.
The disposition to do
one’s duty… is as much
determined by heredity and
environmental factors as are
other inclinations (Grassian,
1981).
Kant… takes it for granted that the ‘moral
law’ imposes upon all rational beings
unconditional, categorical demands that are
binding without any regard to human
inclinations, purposes, desires, or interests,
that have nothing essentially to do with
human happiness, and call only for the
absolute obedience of ‘the good will’; his
problem is to explain how there can be
demands of that kind (Warnock, 1981).
We cannot perform an act which is not in
some way meaningful to us simply because
we have been commanded to do so. It is
psychologically impossible to pursue an end
to which we are indifferent – i.e. that does
not appear to us as good and does not affect
our sensibility. Morality must, then, be not
only obligatory but also desirable and
desired (Durkheim, 1974).
. another reason: acceptable or
unacceptable as duty?
there are people who feel that to be their duty to
• whip their children, because sparing the
rod spoils the child
• help others who are in need
• persecute minority groups since they
believe that inconvenience to the majority
is minimised by so doing
another reason
~ the categorical imperative would seem to
lead a person to follow exceptionless or
absolute moral maxims or rules
* never steal, never lie, never break
promises
* is not free from the difficulties due to
conflict from duties, i.e. how to resolve
conflict between duties
another reason, maybe
• Kant is also uncritical in his acceptance,
as absolute, of such concepts as lying,
promising, and stealing, each of which
might well mean different things to
different people. For example,
to many socialists, the inheritance of wealth
is a type of stealing. Consequently , for such
socialists, strict adherence to the command
“never steal” should rule out the inheritance of
wealth.
So, the search for a conception of morality cannot
end with Kant, for the reason that his ethics is
deficient in certain ways. However, like other
conceptions (of moral theory), there are aspects
of Kantian ethics which are necessary in our
understanding of morality, especially those
related to universalism, respect for humanity,
impartiality, rationality and autonomy.