Chapter 2
Paradigms, Theory, And Research
Traditional Model of Science
Three main elements in the traditional model of science:
1.
Theory
2.
Operationalization
3.
Observation
Hypothesis
•
•
•
A specified testable expectation about
empirical reality that follows from a more
general proposition.
An expectation about the nature of things
derived from a theory.
A statement of something that ought to be
observed in the real world if the theory is
correct.
Operationalization
•
Developing operational definitions or
specifying the exact operations involved
in measuring a variable.
• Quantitative: How to agree upon
measuring income in a survey
• Qualitative: How to agree upon the
proper countries to compare
Operational Definition
•
The concrete and specific definition of
something in terms of the operations by
which observations are to be categorized.
• Quantitative: Party Identification will be
measured on a seven-point scale
• Qualitative: Only comparing other
countries in Africa will be necessary
Inductive and Deductive
Reasoning
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•
Induction starts from observed data and
develops a generalization which explains
the relationships between the objects
observed.
In deductive reasoning one starts from a
general law and applies it to a particular
instance.
Null Hypothesis
•
•
In connection with hypothesis testing and
tests of statistical significance, that
hypothesis that suggests there is no
relationship among the variables under
study.
You may conclude that the variables are
related after having statistically rejected
the null hypothesis.
Research Ethics and Theory
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•
Researchers must guard against letting
their choice of theory or paradigms bias
their research results.
The collective nature of social research
offers protection against biased research
findings.
Paradigms
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A model or framework for observation and
understanding, which shapes what we see and
how we understand it.
The conflict paradigm causes us to see social
behavior one way, the interactionist paradigm
causes us to see it differently.
We can see new ways of seeing and explaining
things when we step outside our paradigm.
Macrotheory
•
•
A theory aimed at understanding the “big
picture” of institutions, whole societies
and the interactions among societies.
Karl Marx’s examination of the class
struggle is an example of macrotheory.
Microtheory
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•
A theory aimed at understanding social
life at the level of individuals and their
interactions.
Explaining how the play behavior of girls
differs from that of boys is an example of
microtheory.
Positvism
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•
Comte’s view that science would replace
religion and metaphysics by basing
knowledge on observations.
Comte coined positivism, in contrast to
what he regarded as negative elements in
the Enlightenment.
Conflict
•
Marx suggested social behavior could be
seen as the process of conflict:
• Attempt to dominate others.
• Attempt to avoid domination.
Symbolic Interactionism
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•
Interactions revolve around individuals
reaching understanding through language
and other systems.
Can lend insights into the nature of
interactions in ordinary social life.
Ethnomethodology
•
•
People are continuously trying to make
sense of the life they experience.
One technique is to break the rules and
violate people’s expectations.
Structural Functionalism
•
•
•
A social entity, such as an organization,
can be viewed as an organism.
A social system is made up of parts, each
of which contributes to the functioning of
the whole.
This view looks for the “functions” served
by the various components of society.
Feminism
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Focuses on gender differences and how
they relate to the rest of social
organization.
Draws attention to the oppression of
women in many societies, and sheds light
on all kinds of oppression.
Interest Convergence
•
The thesis that majority group members
will only support the interests of minorities
when those actions also support the
interests of the majority group.
Asch Experiment
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•
Goal was to determine whether subjects
would be swayed by the pressure to go
along with an incorrect answer.
Initial experiments found that a little over
1/3 of subjects were.