Absolute Monarchies and
Enlightened Despots in
Europe
1550-1800
France: Absolute Monarchs-Louis XIII & Louis XIV
Spain: Absolute Monarchs-Philip II
England: Absolute Monarchs and Development of a Constitutional
Monarchy-Tudors & Stuarts
Austria: Enlightened Despots---Maria Theresa & Joseph II
Prussia: Enlightened Despot- Frederick the Great
Russia: Absolute Monarchs- Ivan the Terrible & Peter the Great
Russia: Enlightened Despot-Catherine the Great
The enlightened despots came
out of the old absolute
monarchs
The idea of the state was changing.
They were dictators of a kind who tried
to bring into their countries some of the
ideas of the Enlightenment.
“Enlightened Monarchs”
• Most of Europe ruled by
absolute monarchs
• Receptive to Enlightenment
ideas
• Instituted new laws and
practices
Enlightened Monarchs
• Frederick II, Prussia
• Catherine the Great, Russia
• Maria Theresa, Austria
• Joseph II, Holy Roman Empire
• Gustav III, Sweden
• Napoleon I, France
…Or is there a contradiction here?
• Enlightened Despots
– 18th-century monarchs
– NOT democratic
– BUT used absolute power to reform their countries.
• Areas of reform:
– Law
– Social and economic conditions
– Education
• Notice! No English monarchs here!
• Enlightened Despots:
– They do not believe in divine right.
– They believe they are the first servant of
the state and use their power to serve
the people.
– They are influenced by the writers of the
Enlightenment.
– Usually they leave their country in a
stronger position.
– They have complete control over all
aspects of life: political, social, cultural,
and economic.
Enlightened Despotism
• Idea found in Central and Eastern Europe
whereby monarchs and emperors made
changes to their societies in which modernized
the states while the people earned some
political and social rights
• Monarchs still maintained absolute control, but
instead of justifying their rule by divine right
(God), they instead saw themselves at the
head of the people
• Most of the ideas were really designed to
PREVENT revolution (governments must serve
the needs of men)
• Many of the reforms were eventually rescinded
after the people tried to get even more rights
(revolutions were often brutally repressed
Enlightened Despots
• European monarchs who were eager to bring
political and social change to their countries
• Rulers who wanted to govern by
Enlightenment principles while maintaining
royal powers
• Frederick II of Prussia, Catherine II of Russia, &
Maria Theresa of Austria
How did Absolute Monarchs get
Enlightened?
• Many of them read the works of
the philosophers of the “Age of
Reason” or were advised by
councilors who had.
– Who were the philsophers?
•
•
•
•
•
•
Locke
Hobbes
Montesquieu
Voltaire
Rousseau
The Physiocrats
Voltaire
Montesquieu
Getting Enlightened
• Many monarchs realized that to improve
their states, they needed to reform.
• Several key absolute rulers invited many of
the living philosophers to advise them.
Voltaire—Responsible for the Trend?
• Voltaire pushed the idea
that a ruler can justify
her/his power by
improving society.
• Voltaire is the philosopher
who said: “I may disagree
with what you have to say,
but I shall defend to the
death your right to say it.”
Voltaire
• Voltaire
• spent a lot of time at
the court of Frederick
the Great of Prussia
(Voltaire was the first
to call him “the
Great”)
• corresponded with
Catherine the Great
of Russia.
Enlightened Despots
• Catherine II of Russia
• Russian ruler; exchanged letters with Voltaire; spoke
out against serfdom
• Maria Theresa
• Catholic ruler of Austria; introduced humanitarian
reforms; set up elementary schools
• Frederick II
• Prussian ruler; believed as king he was “servant of
the state”; abolished torture except for treason &
murder; established schools
Enlightened Despots
• Russian ruler; exchanged letters with Voltaire; spoke out
against serfdom
• Catherine II of Russia
• Catholic ruler of Austria; introduced humanitarian reforms;
set up elementary schools
• Maria Theresa
• Prussian ruler; believed as king he was “servant of the state”;
abolished torture except for treason & murder; established
schools
• Frederick II
But it is in Austria, Prussia and Russia where the
enlightened monarchs ruled to the benefit of their people.
Enlightenment Ideas Spread
The spirit of optimism quickly spread throughout Europe. A few
monarchs became enlightened despots, changing their systems of
government and ruling according to Enlightenment ideas.
Prussia
Reforms
• Frederick II, had
duty to rule with
absolute power
• Elementary
education for all
children
• Also strongly
influenced by ideas
of Voltaire
• Abolished torture
• Built powerful
military, introduced
reforms
• Supported most
forms of religious
tolerance
• Reduced
censorship
Limitations
• No religious
tolerance for Jews
• Opposed serfdom,
did not abolish
• Did not make
reforms to achieve
justice but to make
own rule more
powerful
Who were these monarchs?
• Frederick of Prussia (17121786)
– Reign 1740-1786
– (Frederick William
Hohenzollern II)
– Wrote poetry and essays,
played music, even wrote
some philosophy.
– Strategic thinker
Frederick the Great
(ruled 1740–1786)
• Prussian ruler
• Had a strong interest in Enlightenment works
• Induced Voltaire to come to Prussia
• Frederick II, king of Prussia,
•reformed education and justice
•system;
•granted religious freedom and religious differences;
• abolishes torture,
• but fails to end serfdom
• Exerted tight control over
•subjects, but saw himself as a
•“servant of the state.”
• Distributed seeds and tools to
•peasants.
Frederick the Great (continued)
• Wanted to
make
Prussia a
modern
state
• Reforms
Painting titled “Frederick the Great and
Voltaire.”
Frederick the Great
• Reforms
• Abolished torture (except for treason &
murder)
• Established elementary schools
• Promoted industry and agriculture
• After “Seven Years War,” helped peasants
rebuild.
• Established some religious freedom
Fredrick the Great of Prussia
•Emperor of Prussia in
the Northern Germanic
Lands
•Modernized the military
and opened officer
positions to middle and
lower classes
•Modernized the Prussian
government and opened
positions to people of
merit instead of cronies
Frederick the Great (1740-1786) of Prussia was
determined to make Prussia the dominate power.
• Created a strong
aggressive military.
“ Most nations have an army,
Prussia is an army with a
nation”.
• Promoted religious
toleration and education at
home.
• Successfully made Prussia
dominate power by
defeating Austrians.
• ( Seven Years War)
www.ncl.ac.uk/~nhistory/ german.htm
Enlightened Despots
• Frederick II of Prussia (r. 17401786)
•
•
•
•
Rebelled against father
Later developed finest army
Built Sans Souci (Potsdam)
Invited Voltaire to the court
Hohenzollerns
in
Prussia
►“Frederick
the
Great”
(Frederick II: 1740-1786) of
Prussia
• At war for first half of his reign
• Became a reformer during 2nd half of
his reign – ruler was the “first servant
of the state”
• Religious freedom, education in
schools and universities, codified
laws,
promoted
industry
and
agriculture, encouraged immigration
• Social structure remained heavily
stratified:
serfdom;
extended
privileges for the nobility, Junkers
became heart of military; difficult
upward mobility for middle class
leadership
Enlightenment Ideas Spread
The spirit of optimism quickly spread throughout Europe. A few
monarchs became enlightened despots, changing their systems
of government and ruling according to Enlightenment ideas.
Prussia
Reforms
• Frederick II, had
duty to rule with
absolute power
• Elementary
education for all
children
• Also strongly
influenced by
ideas of Voltaire
• Abolished torture
• Built powerful
military,
introduced
reforms
• Supported most
forms of religious
tolerance
• Reduced
censorship
Limitations
• No religious
tolerance for Jews
• Opposed serfdom,
did not abolish
• Did not make
reforms to achieve
justice but to make
own rule more
powerful
Enlightened Despots
• Catherine the Great of
Russia (r. 1762-1796)
– German born wife of Czar
Peter III
– Controlled government after
Peter III’s accidental(?) death
– Increased European culture in
Russia
– Peasant Reforms
– Territorial Expansion
– Corresponded with Diderot
Catherine the Great
Russia
• Catherine II became ruler, 1762
• Dreamed of establishing order, justice, supporting education, culture
• Read works of, corresponded with Voltaire, Diderot
Reforms
• Drafted Russian constitution, code of laws
• Considered too liberal, never put into practice
Limitations
• Intended to free serfs, but would lose support of wealthy landowners
• Catherine had no intention of giving up power
• Became tyrant, imposed serfdom on more Russians than ever before
Catherine the Great of Russia
• Modernized the Russian
army and government
• Studied in France during the
Enlightenment
• Tried to link Russia to the
West through trade and
diplomatic relations
• Increased Russia’s territory,
especially against the
Ottomans (Turks) – sought
to link Russia to its Slavic
neighbors to the south
Catherine the Great
• Reform
– Reorganized local
government and established
a civil service.
– Decreased use of torture
– Codified laws.
– Toured the countryside
incognito.
• Potemkin village comes from
this tour.
Potemkin
Enlightened Despots
• Gustav III of Sweden (r.
1771-1792)
– Forced Parliament to accept
new constitution
– Stimulated literature
• Charles III of Spain (r.
1759-1788)
– Bourbon family
– Improved life for Spanish
– Suppressed Jesuits
Maria Theresa and Joseph II of the Hapsburg Empire (Austria)
Note – mother and brother to Marie Antoinette (Queen of France)
• Serfdom abolished in the
Hapsburg Lands
• Granted freedom of religion
(very radical idea, especially in
a Catholic empire)
• Established a national
education system
• Developed equality before the
law, even for the nobility
• Many of the reforms were
rolled back after revolutions
broke out among the minority
populations of the Hapsburg
Empire
Maria Theresa and Joseph II of Austria
(r. 1740-1780)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
16 children
Built Schönbrunn
Economic reforms
Limited power of the Pope
Reduced power of the lords
Joseph abolished serfdom
Poland divided
Maria Theresa
• Reforms
– Protected the rights of serfs:
codes established regulating
relationship with lords
– Freed all peasants on crown lands
– Started a paid bureaucracy (civil
servants)
– Set up elementary schools funded
by local and state funds.
– Created a tariff union of all parts
of the HRE
– Kicked the Jesuits out of the
country
The Austrian Hapsburgs
►Maria Theresa (r.
1740-1780):
Wars of 1740s
led to internal
consolidation
►Reduced
serfdom (more
than any other e.
European ruler
except her son
Joseph II)
Josef II (1741-1790)
• Reign with Mom (17651780); all by himself
(1780-1790)
• Huge fan of
Enlightenment
philosophers.
– When MT died, he
pushed for even greater
reforms.
“Too many notes”
Enlightenment Ideas Spread
Most radical enlightened despot, Austria
• Joseph II, became emperor 1780
• Ambitious reform program
– Eliminated torture, death penalty
– Provided free food, medicine for poor
– Granted religious tolerance to Protestants and Jews
– Abolished serfdom, laborers to be paid
• Changes resisted by nobility, church
The Austrian Hapsburgs
►Joseph II (1765-1790) – greatest of the
Enlightened despots (“greatest good for
greatest number”)
– Abolished serfdom in 1781, freedom of press,
freedom of religion & civic rights, more equitable
justice system, made German official language (to
assimilate minorities), increased control over
Catholic education, expanded state schools, left
empire in economic and political turmoil: Leopold I
rescind many laws (e.g., serfdom)
In a nutshell…
• Enlightened Despots were not democrats, but topdown reformers.
– They liked Enlightenment philosophy—especially Voltaire’s
brand.
• Reforms in general:
–
–
–
–
–
Codification of laws
Limit church power
Construct hospitals and elementary schools
Develop centralized bureaucracy
Modify serfdom
Advantages to Enlightened Despots:
He/she can make changes that are good for
the country (people)
• Maria Theresa limited the amount
of work required of peasants.
• Frederick the Great = religious
toleration and legal reforms
Limitations of Enlightened Despotism
‫ ﺣ‬Foreshadowed an age of revolution… How?
‫ ﺣ‬Enlightened Despotism is the culmination of the
historic institution of monarchy; a centralizing but
progressive institution that set itself against the
feudal and ecclesiastical powers; after the French
Revolution became nostalgic, backward-looking,
supported by the church and aristocrats – wasn’t
new enough, feudal yet not feudal =/
18th
8
Josef II
• Reforms
– Serfdom completely abolished.
– Taxes were made equal for both
serfs and nobles
– Freedom of the press
– Took property from the church to
fund hospitals.
– Relaxed laws binding Jews to
villages.
• His brother Leopold, however,
was a huge reactionary, and
rolled back a lot of the reforms.
Leopold--Reactionary
Limitations of Enlightened Despotism
‫ ﺣ‬Foreshadowed an age of revolution… How?
‫ ﺣ‬Enlightened Despotism is the culmination of the
historic institution of monarchy; a centralizing but
progressive institution that set itself against the
feudal and ecclesiastical powers;
‫ ﺣ‬after the French Revolution became nostalgic,
backward-looking, supported by the church and
aristocrats – wasn’t new enough, feudal yet not
feudal =/
18th
8
All the enlightened
despots ruled from top
down.
They could only do so
much without the
peoples’ participation.
They are seen as
brilliant, but flawed,
monarchs.
On continental Europe,
they were the last great
rulers.
After their reigns, and
the revolution, the ideas
of Kings and Queens
were seen as backward.
The time for more
enlightened ideas—
maybe even revolution
had come….
Alternatives to Absolutism
►Sweden
– Nobles use the absence of the king during warfare
to reaffirm their power.
►United Provinces
– Merchants and landowners in the Estates General
held the House of Orange in check.
►Poland
– King was elected by nobles, who continued to
hold the power.
What happened in England?
The development of limited
monarchy
(Constitutional Monarchy)
•A CONSTITUTIONAL
MONARCHY is a form of
government established
under a constitutional
system which
acknowledges an
hereditary or elected
monarch as head of state.
•Though the king or queen
may be regarded as the
government's symbolic
head, it is the Prime
Minister who actually
governs the country. For
example: Queen Elizabeth
II of England.
Constitutional
Monarchy
The Monarch and Parliament
•
•
•
•
What was Parliament?
The representatives of the people.
Why did England have a Parliament?
Magna Carta in 1215.
Magna Carta: The Beginning
• 1215 barons had
enough & listed their
grievances
• List became known as
Magna Carta (Great
Charter)
• John met barons at
Runnymede
• It introduced the idea
that even the king
must obey some laws!
Magna Carta
• The king must not interfere with the Church
• When a baron inherits land he should pay the king no
more than £100
• The king cannot collect new taxes unless the barons and
bishops agree
• No freeman can be put in prison without trial by a jury
• Justice will be without delays or bribes
• Traders must be able to travel freely without having to
pay tolls
• The King’s men must not take anyone’s goods without
paying for them.
• As soon as peace is restored, all foreign merchants
should leave the country.
How did Parliament interfere with absolute
monarchy?
• Parliament wanted to share power with
the Monarch.
• King James I, of the Stuart family,
expected to be an absolute monarch and
was challenged by Parliament.
England
• James I
– Son of Mary Queen of
Scots
– Raised by Scottish
leaders
– “Divine right of kings”
– Royal monopolies
– Dissolved Parliament
– Lost favor of the people
– Puritans' opposition
English monarchs attempted to establish
absolute system
• James I (1603-1625)
fought with
Parliament over his
authority.
• Puritans wanted
Anglican Church to
reflect a Calvinist view.
• James refused to
cooperate, except for
a new Bible
translation.
www.bbc.co.uk/history
James I and the clash with Parliament
• James I wanted absolute power when he
inherited the throne from Queen Elizabeth
• Elizabeth wanted absolute power too, but
was better at flattering parliament to get her
way
• Always conflict between the royalty and
parliament over $ - royalty wants $ for royal
court and foreign wars
James I continued
• Also annoyed people b/c he refused to make
Puritan reforms (get rid of Catholic
practices).
• Hated when anyone told him what to do
(sound familiar?)
• Known for the King James Bible – the
Puritan translation of the old Bible
James I
• Reigned 1603-25
• The people disliked him
• Jamestown & Plymouth, Massachusetts
founded
• England went into debt; James demanded
high taxes
• Argued with Parliament; wanted absolute
monarchy as in Henry VIII’s day
King James I
• Charles I
England
– Son of James I
– Revolt in Scotland
• Scottish people did
not feel fairly treated
• Imposition of bishops
versus presbyters
– War with France
• Unable to raise taxes
without Parliament
• Long Parliament
– Civil War
• Death of the king
• Roundheads vs
Cavaliers
Charles I
• 1625, James I dies and his son, Charles I, gets
the throne
• Always needed $ for war
• When parliament denied $ requests, he
dissolved parliament
• 1628, parliament gets back together and asks
Charles to sign the Petition of Right
What was the Petition of Right?
• An agreement between Parliament and
the King that said the king must:
• Get Parliament’s consent to raise taxes.
• Not imprison subjects without due cause.
• Not have martial law or house soldiers in
time of peace.
Petition of Right
•
•
•
•
No imprisonment without due cause
No taxation without parliament’s consent
No putting soldiers in private homes
No martial law during peacetime
• Charles I signed the petition and then
ignored it – even dissolved parliament again
and levied mad taxes on the people
How did the Petition of Right limit the
monarchy in England?
• The king had to
follow rules.
• Especially
important the king
had to ask
Parliament’s
permission to raise
taxes
More of Charles I
• The people hated the
taxes (obviously)
What did Charles do to limit Parliament’s
Power?
• He did not allow them to meet for
over ten years.
• When they did meet he tried to
arrest Parliament’s leaders
• This started the English Civil War.
Charles loses his head in an
argument
• Charles I (1625-1649) pursued
an aggressive foreign policy
with Spain.
• Continually sought new funds
from Parliament, members
checked his power by forcing
him to sign the Petition of
Right, 1628.
• When Charles dissolved
Parliament and tried to raise
money, civil war resulted.
: www.mdarchives.state.md.us/.../ 01glance/images/charles1.jpg
Parliamentary Parties
• Tories: for a strong king, tended to be
Anglicans & landless nobles (who got their
titles from the king)
• Whigs: for a strong Parliament, tended to be
Anglicans who supported religious freedom,
as well as merchants and lawyers; also
included Puritans
English Civil War
• Since Charles I ruled over Scotland AND England,
there were several religions
• Charles I wanted ONE religion – ended up in Civil
War when the Scots rebelled
• War cost $, so Charles needed Parliament.
Parliament hated him and wanted to limit his
power
– Supporters of Charles I = Royalists
– The opposition supports Parliament = Roundheads
1642 Civil War
• Erupted because Charles I refused to let Parliament meet
from 1629-40. When they finally did meet, refused to give him
money unless he agreed to limit his own powers.
• Tories willing to fight nicknamed “Cavaliers” (Fr.
Chevalier=knight)
• Puritans flocked to the banner of General Oliver Cromwell;
known as “Roundheads” for their closely cropped, plain hair,
in contrast with the fashionably long haired Cavaliers
• Puritanism swept the lend; arts and sciences that flourished
since Elizabeth went underground
More Civil War
• Under leadership of
Oliver Cromwell, the
puritan roundheads
finally won (1646)
• Took Charles I hostage,
tried him in front of
the public and executed
him
• The decapitation -
Results of the English Civil War
• Charles I lost and was tried and executed
(Beheaded).
• England was ruled by a military
dictatorship for 9 years.
• The Restoration lasted for 28 years.
• Glorious Revolution changed kings
without violence.
Oliver Cromwell defeats king’s forces
and became Lord Protector
• Charles executed for
treason.
• On paper, England
was a republic but in
practice a
dictatorship.
• Cromwell
suppressed revolt in
Ireland.
• Imposed Puritan
ideals on English.
http://www.graham.day.dsl.pipex.com/civilwar-cromwell.gif
Oliver Cromwell
• 1649 he got rid of the monarchy and established a
republican form of government
• Sent most of the Parliamentary members home and
eventually established a military dictatorship (he
tore up the first constitution that his associate
produced)
• Since Ireland was under English rule, the Irish
revolted against Cromwell and failed – 616,000
Irish were killed by war, plague and famine
Puritan Morality
• Cromwell and the Puritans wanted to
improve England’s morality
• Abolished all “sinful” things – like theater
• Cromwell was tolerant of other religions
despite his deep Puritan beliefs (EXCEPT
CATHOLICS)
Interregnum
• Latin for “between kings,” 1649-60
• England became a “Protectorate” instead of a
commonwealth with Cromwell as “Lord Protector”
• Scotland & Ireland conquered (hence Ireland’s antiProtestant attitude
• Oliver dies in 1658, his son Richard now Lord
Protector
• Richard proves to be inept, so people overthrow him
in 1660, ask for monarchy
Great Chain of Being
• May explain why English wanted a monarch
again.
• A way of looking at the universe and how it
works
• All beings and objects arranged in a hierarchy
with God at the top and mere dust at the
bottom
• By killing the king, the chain is disrupted and
chaos ensues
Monarchy Restored
• When Cromwell died,
so did his government.
• English invited
Charles II (1660-1685)
to restore monarchy.
• Reign was a period of
calm marked by court
decadence.
Restoration and Revolution
• English get sick of military rule and after Cromwell
dies, they ask the older son of Charles I (Charles II)
to rule England
• Restoration of monarch = restoration
• Allowed the return of theater and sports
• Passed important guarantee of freedom: Habeas
Corpus
– “to have the body”
– People need to know why they’re arrested
– Could not be held indefinitely without trial
Monarchy In Crisis
• On Charles’ death,
brother became king.
• James II (1685-1688)
was pro-Catholic,
which angered many.
• When his young wife
produced an heir,
Parliament feared a
renewed period of
turmoil and removed
king from power.
www.bbc.co.uk/.../monarchs_leaders/ images/james_2_full.jpg
James II and the Glorious Revolution
• James II got the throne after Charles II died
• Everyone hated James b/c he was
flamboyantly Catholic and gave his Catholic
friends good jobs
• James was eventually peacefully overthrown
by his own daughter and her husband
(protestants)
• William and Mary then ruled England
The Glorious Revolution
William and Mary Restore English Monarchy
• Parliament invited Mary,
daughter of Charles I, and a
Protestant, to jointly rule
with her husband, William of
Orange. (1689-1702)
• Both agreed to follow
Parliamentary laws and
accepted English Bill of
Rights.
• England became the only
limited monarchy in Europe.
Parliament in control.
www.camelotintl.com/heritage/ rulers/images/willmary.gif
What were the results of the Glorious
Revolution?
• William and Mary ruled with Parliament
= Constitutional Monarchy.
• They agreed to a Bill of Rights that
limited government’s (monarch’s) power
• Cabinet system developed with the
Prime Minister as leader.
Political Changes
• First Constitutional Monarchy where laws
limited the ruler’s power
• Bill of Rights:
– No suspension of Parliament’s laws
– No taxes w/o Parliament’s consent
– Freedom of speech in Parliament
– No penalty for complaining about the King
Political Changes Continued
• Established a Cabinet
• Cabinet was a link b/w the majority party in
Parliament and the King
• Became center of power and policymaking
– Still exists today
– Leader of Cabinet = Prime Minister
1707 Act of Union
• Unifies Scotland & England
• Ireland is a subject nation
• Nation known as the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and
Ireland