Survey of Modern Psychology
Personality
Personality
Personality generally refers to the
“distinctive patterns (including
thoughts as well as ‘affects,’ that is,
feelings and emotions and actions)
that characterize each individual
enduringly.”
(Mischel, 1999)
Personality Psychology
•Personality psychology examines a
person’s traits that are considered to be
consistent across situations.
•Social Psychology focuses on how the
situation causes individuals to behave a
certain way
•Behavior is seen as primarily a
function of the situation rather than
individual characteristics
•Personality Psychology emphasizes the
importance of individual differences
Approaches to Personality
There are five main approaches to the study and
interpretation of personality:
1.
Psychodynamic
2.
Trait and Biological
3.
Phenomenological
(Emphasizes the individual's experience and
how he or she perceives it)
4.
Behavioral
5.
Social Cognitive-Affective
Tables from Mischel, 1999
Causes of Behavior
Psychodynamic
Underlying stable motives and their
unconscious transformation
Trait and Biological
Generalized (consistent, stable) dispositions;
biochemical (genetic) causes for some (most)
dispositions
Phenomenological
Self-concepts, feelings and conflicts,
attributions, free choices (not
mechanistically determined)
Behavioral
Prior learning and cues in a situation
(including the behavior of others)
Social Cognitive-Affective
Reciprocal interaction between person and
situation, mediated by the person variables
interacting within the Cognitive-Affective
Personality System (CAPS
Behavioral Manifestations of Personality
Psychodynamic
Symptoms, “mistakes,” dreams, fantasies
Trait and Biological
Direct signs of traits
Phenomenological
Private experiences, perceptions, and
interpretations
Behavioral
Stable behavior equated with personality
Social Cognitive-Affective
Stable patterns of person-situation
interactions; distinctive configurations of
if… then… relationships
(i.e., she does X when Y; but she does A
when B)
Preferred Data Sources
Psychodynamic
Interpretations by expert judges (clinicians)
Trait and Biological
Test responses (on questionnaires); trait
ratings, behavior genetics research, twin
studies
Phenomenological
Self-disclosure and personal constructs
(about self and others); self-reports
Behavioral
Direct observations of behavior in the target
situation
Social Cognitive-Affective
Measures of person variables in interaction
with one another and relevant situations
Research Focus
Psychodynamic
Personality dynamics and psychopathology;
unconscious processes; defense mechanisms;
the fragmented self
Trait and Biological
Measurement (test construction),
description of individual differences and
their patterning; taxonomy of traits;
heritability of personality
Phenomenological
Self-concepts; self-awareness and expression;
human potential and self-actualization;
emotion; attribution
Behavioral
Behavior change; analysis of conditions
controlling behavior
Social Cognitive-Affective
Refining theories about underlying
processes and discovering practical
implications (for health, for risk prevention
in vulnerable individuals)
Approach to Personality Change
Psychodynamic
By insight into motives and conflicts
underlying behavior
Trait and Biological
Not much concerned with change; search
for consistent, stable characteristics;
biochemical treatments for disorders
Phenomenological
By increased awareness, personal honesty,
internal consistency, and self-acceptance; by
modifying constructs; by alternative
construals
Behavioral
By changing conditions; by experiences that
modify behavior
Social Cognitive-Affective
By changing underlying person variables
(e.g., focusing on alternative possible selves;
modifying efficacy and outcome
expectations and processing dynamics)
Role of Situation
Psychodynamic
Deliberately minimized or ambiguous
Trait and Biological
Acknowledged but of secondary interest
until recently
Phenomenological
As the context for experience and choice;
focus on the situation-as-perceived
Behavioral
Extremely important; regulates much
behavior
Social Cognitive-Affective
Provides psychological cues and information
that activate Cognitive-Affective Personality
System dynamics and dispositions
Contradictions in
Personality Theory
Personality is both stable and
capable of change
Contradictions in
Personality Theory
Dispositions and situations are
both important
Contradictions in
Personality Theory
Behavior depends on the social
environment; genetic and
biological factors are also
foundations of social behavior
Contradictions in
Personality Theory
People are both consistent and
inconsistent
Contradictions in
Personality Theory
Humans are cognitive and
emotional beings
Contradictions in
Personality Theory
Behavior can be both rational
and irrational
Personality Tests
Discussion: What do you know
about personality tests?
Personality Tests
Projective Tests:
Present the individual with material that’s
open to interpretation. The tests are based
on the assumption that the responses reveal
information about the respondent’s
personality
Personality Tests
Objective/standardized/structured tests:
Materials are standardized and give a structured
set of potential responses (ex. true/false,
always/sometimes/never, don’t know, etc.)
Scoring is based on a given set of specific criteria
and is not open to broad interpretation
Projective Tests - Rorschach
•Consists of 10 cards with vertically
symmetrical inkblots
•The respondent looks at the inkblots one at
a time and is asked to say everything the
inkblot could resemble or look like
•The examiner usually asks for details about
the interpretation of the inkblot
Projective Tests - Rorschach
Responses are scored based on:
• Location (the part of the card that the respondent
refers to)
•Physical aspects of the inkblot (shape, suggestion of
movement)
•Originality
•Content
These responses are generally compared to those of
respondents of a similar age group
Projective Tests - Rorschach
The examiner interprets the responses as
related to personality, creative capacity,
contact with reality, and anxiety
Rorschach Test
There is debate as to whether the results have any
true meaning
•Mixed results on inter-rater reliability
•A more intelligent or creative person may give a
higher number of interpretations, meaning that
there’s a higher chance some will be considered
pathological
•Cross culturally, different people may focus on
different aspects of the same inkblot
Rorschach Test
Often, more can be inferred from how the
respondent verbalizes their response rather
than the answer itself
•For example, a more vivid description of
the same image could indicate a higher IQ
Factors other than
pathology may
influence how
we interpret
inkblots
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
•The test contains a series of picture cards presented
one at a time
•It is described as a story telling test, and the
respondent is asked to make up a story for each picture
telling:
1.
What led up to the event shown in the picture
2.
What is happening in the picture at the moment
3.
What the characters are feeling and thinking
4.
What is the outcome?
TAT
•The task is timed from before the respondent
begins the story to the end of the story
•It studies how people interpret an ambiguous
stimuli
•The themes are assumed to reflect the respondent’s
underlying conflicts and problems
•Results are generally interpreted based on the
clinician’s judgments rather than a formal scoring
method
TAT
•Images include adults, children, men,
women, and ambiguous figures
•Originally, 10 cards were selected out of the
possible 31 and were matched to the
respondent based on age and gender
Problems with the TAT
•The story a person tells does not necessarily
reflect a permanent inner state
•For example, a person who has recently
lost a loved one might tell a sad story with
a bereavement theme because it has
recently been on their mind, not because
they are a generally depressed person
Problems with the TAT
•Original images were made in the 1930s
and had white people, which may influence
the interpretations for non-white test takers
•Some of the images are now considered
outdated, which may bias results
•The interpretation of the story is generally
left up to the examiner
Problems with Projective Tests
•They are open to the interpretation of the
examiner
•Does the same response always mean the
same thing?
•It’s usually easy to “fake good” or “fake
bad”
The Big Five
In research, when people are asked to
describe themselves they tend to cluster their
descriptions around these five categories (on
different points of a spectrum)
The Big Five
1. Neuroticism
2. Extraversion
3. Openness to Experience
4. Agreeableness
5. Conscientiousness
Neuroticism
•Negative emotions, e.g., anxiety, depression
•In this spectrum:
•Calm vs. worrying
•Unemotional vs. emotional
•Secure vs. insecure
•Not envious vs. jealous
Extraversion
•Positive emotionality
•In this spectrum:
•Quiet vs. talkative
•Aloof vs. friendly
•Inhibited vs. spontaneous
•Timid vs. bold
Openness to Experience
•Vs. closed-mindedness
•In this spectrum:
•Conventional vs. original
•Unadventurous vs. daring
•Conforming vs. independent
•Unartistic vs. artistic
Agreeableness
•Vs. antagonism
•In this spectrum:
•Irritable vs. good natured
•Uncooperative vs. helpful
•Suspicious vs. trusting
•Critical vs. lenient
Conscientiousness
•Vs. undirectedness
•In this spectrum:
•Careless vs. careful
•Helpless vs. self-reliant
•Lax vs. scrupulous
•Ignorant vs. knowledgeable
The Big Five
•This list was constructed using Factor Analysis
•Patterns of responses that tend to go
together
•Particular adjectives are strongly correlated
with other adjectives; those characteristics
make up that particular trait
The Big Five
•Inter rater reliability tends to be good
•Test-retest reliability is high
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
(MMPI)
The MMPI is one of the most extensive,
popular, and widely studied personality
questionnaires
MMPI
•Consists of 550 statements
•Gives the answer options of:
•True
•False
•Cannot say (undecided)
MMPI
•The MMPI was originally used to classify
psychiatric patients on multiple dimensions
•Items ask about attitudes, emotional
reactions, psychiatric symptoms, the
respondent's past, and more
MMPI Sample Items:
•Sometimes I think I may kill myself
•My greatest troubles are inside myself
•I certainly have little self-assurance
•I wish I were not so awkward
•I am shy
Questions are purposely vague and do not
describe situations
Similar Items to MMPI Anxiety Measures
Item
High Anxiety Response
I rarely get really tired
False
I am not a worrier
False
I cannot keep my mind focused on
anything
True
I almost never blush
False
Often I cannot keep from crying
True
It’s hard for me to attend to a job
True
Often I think I am no good
True
MMPI
•The MMPI is sorted into 10 scales with 3
control scales
•Results provide comparisons against norms
(averages) and provide information based on
people who give similar answers
MMPI – 10 Scales
1.
Hypochondriasis
2.
Depression
3.
Hysteria
4.
Psychopathic Deviate
5.
Masculinity – Femininity
6.
Paranoia
7.
Psychasthenia
8.
Schizophrenia
9.
Hypomania
10. Social Introversion
MMPI Scales
Hypochondriasis
Neurotic concern over bodily functioning
MMPI Scales
Depression
•Poor morale, lack of hope in the future, and
a general dissatisfaction with one's own life
situation
•High scores may suggest clinical depression
•Lower scores reflect more general
unhappiness with life
MMPI Scales
Hysteria
•Extreme reaction to stressful situations
•Often with a 'normal' façade but break down
with stress
•People who tend to score higher are often
brighter, better educated and from higher social
classes
•Women tend to score higher*
MMPI Scales
Psychopathic Deviate
•Measures social deviation, lack of acceptance of
authority, dislike of the status quo, and amorality
•Adolescents tend to score higher
•This is part of a normal questioning of authority as
one gets older
•Black people often score higher than white people*
MMPI Scales
Masculinity – Femininity
•Was originally intended to differentiate between heterosexual
and homosexual men
•Has not been found to be effective
•Looks at how much a person endorses gender norms
•Extremely high scores for men or women suggest rejection of
traditional gender roles
•Well educated and higher socio-economic status men tend to
score higher
MMPI Scales
Paranoia
Paranoid symptoms such as ideas of
reference, feelings of persecution,
grandiose self-concepts, suspiciousness,
excessive sensitivity, and rigid opinions
and attitudes.
MMPI Scales
Psychasthenia
•Originally characterized by excessive doubts,
compulsions, obsessions, and unreasonable fears
•It is now closest to Obsessive Compulsive
Disorder (OCD)
• Also shows abnormal fears, self-criticism,
difficulties in concentration, and guilt feelings
MMPI Scales
Schizophrenia
•Originally developed to identify schizophrenics
•Variety of content areas, including bizarre thought processes and peculiar
perceptions, social alienation, poor familial relationships, difficulties in
concentration and impulse control, lack of deep interests, disturbing questions
of self-worth and self-identity, and sexual difficulties
•Misinterpretations of reality, delusions, and hallucinations may be present
•Ambivalent or constricted emotional responsiveness is common
•Behavior may be withdrawn, aggressive, or bizarre
•Age, race, and socio-economic status tend to play a role in scores
MMPI Scales
Hypomania
Tests for elevated mood, accelerated speech
and motor activity, irritability, flight of ideas,
and brief periods of depression
MMPI Scales
Social introversion
•Tests for a person's tendency to withdraw
from social contacts and responsibilities
•Includes a measure of social participation
and one of general neurotic maladjustment
and self-depreciation
MMPI – 10 Scales
The scale names are based on the
questions’ correlations with other
indices and do not necessarily
indicate that symptom
MMPI
3 Control
Scales
1.
Lie scale
•
2.
K Scale
•
3.
Tendency to lie by “faking good”
Defensiveness and trying to appear more socially desirable
F Scale
•
Measure of whether the respondent is answering items in a
careless or confused fashion
What This Means
Self-reported answers on personality
measures tend to be stable over time.
However, answers on questionnaires do not
necessarily predict our behavior.
We may consistently rate ourselves the same,
but behave differently.
What This Means
•Results from the MMPI correlate well with
other appropriate measures
•i.e., the anxiety measures correlate well
with other anxiety inventories
What This
Means
While it is more difficult to fake
answers on the MMPI, the questions
are still fairly transparent