Chapter 13: Leadership
PSYC 352
Overview
Leadership vs. management
Major topics in leadership
Theoretical approaches to leadership
Points of convergence among approaches
Cross-cultural leadership issues
Diversity issues in leadership
Concluding comments
Leadership vs. Management
Mintzberg (1973) stated that leadership was
merely a form or subset of management.
Minzberg also suggested that managers had
the following roles or functions:
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Figurehead
Negotiator
Liaison
Monitor
Disseminator
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Spokesman
Entrepreneur
Distribution handler
Resource allocator
Leadership vs. Management
Other researchers (Bennis & Nanus, 1985)
suggest that there are differences between
leaders and managers.
“To manage means to bring about, to
accomplish, to have charge of or responsibility
for, to consider!”
 “Leading is influencing, guiding in direction,
course, action, opinion.”
 Leaders are people who do the right thing.
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Major Topics in Leadership
Positional power: higher position = more power
The leader: characteristics of leaders
The led: characteristics of followers
The influence process: coercion, manipulation,
authority, persuasion
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Types of leader behavior: instrumental, supportive
The situation: characteristics of situation
Leader emergence versus leader effectiveness:
how do leaders emerge, why are they effective?
Theoretical Approaches to
Leadership
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
The trait approach
The behavioral approach
The power and influence approach
The situational approach
Transformational leadership
Charismatic leadership
The implicit leadership theory
Substitutes for leadership
1. The Trait Approach
Thomas Carlyle (1907) commented that“the history
of the world was the biography of great men”
Focuses on:
Personal attributes: high energy level,
tolerance for stress, emotional maturity,
integrity, self-confidence
 Motivation: need for power, achievement,
affiliation
 Skills: technical, conceptual, interpersonal
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2. The Behavioral Approach
Emphasizes what leaders actually do on the
job.
2 lines of research:
Classification of leadership behaviors into
categories
 Identification of behaviors related to leadership
effectiveness
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2. The Behavioral Approach
How to Classify Behavior?
Ohio State researchers (1950)
Initiating structure (task-oriented)
 Consideration (people-oriented)
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Yukl, Wall, and Lepsinger (1990)
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11 generic categories of leadership behavior
- Networking
- Planning and organizing
- Supporting
- Problem solving
- Managing conflict and team
- Consulting and delegating
building
- Motivating
- Recognizing and rewarding
- Monitoring
- Informing
- Clarifying
3. Power and Influence Approach
Emphasizes the use of power and influence
exercised by a person within a group
3 major topics
Power and leader effectiveness
 LMX theory
 Influence tactics
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3. Power and Influence:
Power and Leader Effectiveness
5 types of power (French & Raven, 1960):
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Reward
Coercive
Legitimate
3 outcomes of power:
Commitment
 Compliance
 Resistance
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Empirical research
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Expert
Referent
3. Power and Influence:
Leader-Member Exchange (LMX)
Emphasizes the nature of the relationship
between a leader and her/his subordinates
Leaders differentiate subordinates by:
Competence and skill
 Extent to which they can be trusted
 Motivation to assume greater responsibility
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3. Power and Influence:
Leader-Member Exchange (LMX)
Leaders develop relationships with each
member of their work group (dyads)
High quality relationships: member of “ingroup;” greater responsibility, satisfaction
Low quality relationships: member of “outgroup;” less responsibility, satisfaction
Psychological bases for exchange:
Personal contribution
 Loyalty
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Affect
 Professional respect
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3. Power and Influence:
Influence Tactics
9 influencing tactics:
Rational persuasion
 Inspirational appeals
 Consultation
 Ingratiation
 Personal appeals
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Exchange
 Coalition tactics
 Legitimating tactics
 Pressure
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Empirical research results
4. Situational Approach
Emphasizes situational factors (e.g., nature
of work performed, attitudes of
subordinates) that promote the occurrence
of leadership
Path-goal theory: emphasizes the
importance of telling followers what
behaviors are needed in order to attain
desired outcomes (House, 1971)
4. Situational Approach:
Path-Goal Theory
Leader must manifest 4 styles of behavior:
Directive
Participative
Supportive
Achievement
oriented
Leaders can influence subordinates’
perceptions of jobs by:
Removing obstacles from path to desired goal
 Rewarding goal attainment
 Helping clarify paths to goals
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Conceptual limitations of theory
5. Transformational Leadership
Leadership is the process of inspiring a
group to pursue goals and attain results.
4 components:
Idealized
influence
Intellectual stimulation
Inspirational motivation Individualized consideration
Transformational leadership is strongly
related to work unit effectiveness;
especially idealized influence (Lowe, Kroeck, &
Sivasubramaniam, 1996)
6. Charismatic Leadership
Follower perception that a leader possesses
a divinely inspired gift (charisma) and is
unique and larger than life, which inspires
confidence and support (in followers) for
the ideas and beliefs of the leader
Behaviors typical of charismatic leaders:
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Impression management
Articulation of appealing vision
Communication of high expectations
 Expression of confidence
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Negative charismatics
7. Implicit Leadership Theory
Leadership exists only in the mind of the
follower.
Individuals have an idea of what a leader
should look like; they evaluate actual
leaders based on this idea (Lord, Foti, & Phillips,
1982).
Problems with measurement
8. Substitutes for Leadership
Idea that there are other influences that can
act in place of, or substitute for, formal
leadership
Four environmental sources that provide
structure and direction (Pierce et al., 1984):
The job itself
 Technology
 Work unit
 Leader
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Points of Convergence among
Approaches
Importance of influencing and motivating
Importance of maintaining effective
relationships
Importance of making decisions
Cross-Cultural Leadership Issues
Japanese vs. American managers (Graen & Wakabayashi,
1994):
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Language differences
Japanese perception that Americans have
underdeveloped sense of obligation to company
Americans do not understand Japanese tendency to not
use punishment for insubordination
Americans see lack of perks as loss of status
Americans do not spend entire career in one company
There is not a single conceptualization of
leadership
Diversity Issues in Leadership
Most research is based on white men
Reasons for gender differences in leadership:
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Cultural
Biases
Gender differences in evaluation:
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Tendency for women to be evaluated lower
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More so when when their leadership style was stereotypically
masculine
More so when evaluators were women
Women experience more barriers in leadership
(Lyness & Thompson, 2000)
Conclusion
New trends in leadership:
Managing a diverse workforce
 Leaders are not only heroes, but “hero makers”
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