Chapter 1: Introducing Indian society
Sociology is the only subject about which everyone knows something and this previous knowledge is
both an advantage and a disadvantage. Advantage in a sense that one doesn’t considers it a hard
subject and disadvantage in a sense that many of the prior knowledge learnt must be unlearnt first
because the things we know though not wrong are most of the time based on a specific point of
view and that view is most of the time based upon the view of a majority.
Sociology offers to show us this world from different viewpoints.
Reflexivity: Sociology can also help us to see ourselves from outside. The ability to reflect upon one
self and to direct our gaze inward which is normally directed outwards is called reflexivity.
Sociology tells us about our position on the social map. A social map would tell us where we are
located in the society. The social group, religious group, linguistic or regional group, economic class
that one might belong to and their relationship with each other and how one’s life might be affected
by them.
A sociological perspective teaches one to draw social maps.
Indian nationalism and colonialism:
It was during the colonial period that national or Indian consciousness took shape. Colonial
exploitation and domination scarred Indian society in many ways but colonialism also gave birth to
its own enemy, nationalism.
Historically, an Indian nationalism took shape under British colonialism. The shared experience of
colonial domination helped unify and energise different sections of the community. The emerging
middle classes began, with the aid of western style education, to challenge colonialism on its own
ground. Ironically, colonialism and western education also gave the impetus for the rediscovery of
tradition. This led to the developments on the cultural and social front which solidified emergent
forms of community at the national and regional levels. Colonialism created new classes and
communities which came to play significant roles in subsequent history. The urban middle classes
were the main carriers of nationalism and they led the campaign for freedom. Colonial interventions
also crystallised religious and caste based communities. These too became major players. The
complex ways in which the subsequent history of contemporary Indian society evolved is something
you will encounter in the following chapters
Chapter 2: The Demographic structure of Indian Society
What is Demography?
It is a systematic study of the population. Demography studies the trends and processes associated
with population including – changes in population size; patterns of births, deaths, and migration; and
the structure and composition of the population, such as the relative proportions of women, men
and different age groups.
The word Demography has a Greek origin. Demos: People, Graphein: Describe
Types of demography:
1).Social Demography: Population studies or social demography enquires into the wider causes and
consequences of population structures and change.
2). Formal Demography: Formal demography is primarily concerned with the measurement and
analysis of the components of population change. Its focus is on quantitative analysis for which it has
a highly developed mathematical methodology suitable for forecasting population growth and
changes in the composition of population.
All demographic studies are based upon Census or surveys.
The formation of nation states in Europe during latter half of 18th century i.e. 1790s where states
now required quantitative data regarding their populations and the simultaneous development of
the field of statistics helped establish the need for demography which in turn culminated in the
establishment of the academic field of sociology.
The American census of 1790 was probably the first modern census.
1800s: The practice was adopted in Europe.
1867-72: The Census began to be conducted by British Indian Govt.
Since 1881, regular census has been conducted in India. The Indian census is the largest such
exercise in the world since China doesn’t conducts them regularly.
Some Theories in Demography:
1). The Malthusian theory of Population growth:
Thomas Robert Malthus in 1798 in his “Essay on the principle of Population” stated that the rate of
growth of population will always outstrip the rate at which the human means of subsistence grow.
Rate of growth of population = Geometric population
Rate of growth of means of human subsistence = Arithmetic Progression
Preventive checks (delaying the marriage, celibacy etc) that must be applied to the population
growth rate are limited and therefore, positive checks like famine or epidemics were inevitable and
were nature’s way of dealing with the imbalance between food supply and the increasing
population.
So how was this theory refuted:
It was refuted by the growth of European countries where in the first quarter of the 20th century
birth rates declined and the outbreaks of epidemics were being controlled. The standards of living
and the food production rose simultaneously with the rise in the population.
Criticism of Matlhus’ theory:
Marxist and liberal scholars criticised Malthusian theory arguing that rise in population doesn’t
create poverty but it is the unequal distribution of economic resources that was the main cause of
poverty and starvation.
2).Theory of Demographic transition:
Another significant theory in demographics is the theory of demographic transition which states that
the population growth rate is linked with the overall levels of economic development and that every
society follows a development-related population growth.
This theory states that there are 3 phases of population growth,
i).1st Phase: The net growth rate is low because Birth rate and Death rate are high.
ii). 3rd Phase: The net growth rate is low because Birth rate and Death rate are low.
iii).2nd Phase: This transitional phase from a backward to an advanced stage has very high population
growth rates and very low death rates resulting in a population explosion. This happens due to death
rate being brought down due to advanced methods of disease control, better nutrition etc but it
takes society longer to adjust and alter its reproductive behaviour to suit this current state of
relative prosperity and longer life spans.
This change happened in Western Europe during late 19th century and early 20th century (1890s –
1910s)
India is also going through this demographic transition as the mortality rates have been brought
down but the birth rates have not been brought to the same extent.
Common concepts and indicators:
Birth rate: Number of live births per 1000 of the population.
Death rate: Number of deaths per 1000 of the population.
These statistics depend on people reporting the births and deaths that happen in their family. In
India it is mandatory by law to report births and deaths.
Growth rate or rate of natural increase of population: It refers to the difference between the
growth rate and death rate.
Case1:
When growth rate is 0 or near 0 => population has stabilised or reached the replacement level.
Replacement level: It is the rate of growth required for new generations to replace the older ones
that are dying out.
Case2:
When there is negative population growth => fertility levels are below the replacement rate. For eg:
Countries like Japan, Russia, Italy and Eastern Europe are experiencing this negative growth rate.
Case3:
Very High growth rate is due to demographic transition.
Fertility rate: It refers to the number of live births per 1000 women in the child-bearing age group,
usually taken to be 15 to 49 years. Unlike Birth and Death rates this indicator is crude rate i.e. a
rough average.
Total Fertility rate: It refers to the average number of births to a cohort of women up to the end of
the reproductive age period (estimated on the basis of the age-specific rates observed during a given
period)
Infant mortality rate (IMR): It refers to the number of deaths of babies before 1 year per 1000 live
births
Maternal mortality rate (MMR): It refers to the number of women who die during childbirth per
1000 live births.
High IMR and MMR are clear indicators of backwardness and poverty. Development results in sharp
fall in both these rates.
Life expectancy: This refers to the estimated number of years that an average person is expected to
survive. It is calculated on the basis of data on age-specific death rates in a given area over a period
of time.
Sex ratio: It refers to the number of females per 1000 males in a given area at a specified time
period.
Now, all over the world it has been found that there are more females then males despite of the fact
that more male babies are born then female ones. Nature seems to produce 943 or 952 female
babies over 1000 male babies. So why is there more number of females then males?
Reason 1: Girl babies have more resistance to diseases at infancy then boy babies.
Reason 2: Women have tended to live more than men in most societies thereby resulting in, more,
older women than men.
However, sex ratio has been declining in India over past few years.
Age structure of population: It refers to the proportion of persons in different age groups relative to
the total population.
Age structure is related to life expectancy and levels of development.
Poor medical facilities=> Shorter life span=>decrease in life expectancy=> larger population in
younger age groups
Better medical facilities=> Longer life span=> Increase in life expectancy=> larger population in older
age groups. This is also referred to as aging of the population.
Dependency ratio: It is a measure comparing the portion of a population which is composed of
dependents (i.e., elderly people who are too old to work, and children who are too young to work)
with the portion that is in the working age group, generally defined as 15 to 64 years. The
dependency ratio is equal to the population below 15 or above 64, divided by population in the 1564 age group; the ratio is usually expressed as a percentage.
Case 1:
Rising dependency ratio is a cause of worry=>Increase in non-working population=> difficulty for a
relatively smaller proportion of working-age people to carry the burden of relatively large
dependents
Case 2:
Fall in dependency ratio can be a source of economic growth and prosperity=> large working
population and relatively smaller proportion of dependents. This is sometimes referred to as
Demographic dividend or benefit flowing from the changing age structure. However this benefit is
temporary as this large pool of working population will eventually turn to non-working old people.
Growth of India’s Population:
Between 1911 – 1921 – Population growth rate was -0.03% (due to influenza epidemic or the
Spanish flu (a global epidemic which exterminated 5% of India’s population at that time) during
1918-1919)
Between 1961-1981– Population growth rate increased to 2.22%. Since then the annual growth rate
has decreased but it still remains one of the highest in the developing world.
The main reasons for decline in death rates after 1921 are,
 Levels of control over epidemic diseases and famines
Why Birth rate has not declined like death rate in India?
This is because the birth rate is a socio-cultural phenomenon that is relatively slow to change. By and
large, increased levels of prosperity exert a strong downward pull on the birth-rate. Once infant
mortality rates decline, and there is an overall increase in levels of education and awareness, family
size begins to fall.
In India some states like Kerala and Tamilnadu have brought the total fertility rates (TFRs) below 2
and 1.8 respectively while some states like UP, Bihar have very high TFRs of 4 (meaning an average
women produces 4 children which is way above the replacement level)
Age or population pyramid:
A population pyramid, also called an age pyramid or age picture diagram, is a graphical illustration
that shows the distribution of various age groups in a population (typically that of a country or
region of the world), which forms the shape of a pyramid when the population is growing.[1] It is also
used in ecology to determine the overall age distribution of a population; an indication of the
reproductive capabilities and likelihood of the continuation of a species.
It typically consists of two back-to-back bar graphs, with the population plotted on the Xaxis and age on the Y-axis, one showing the number of males and one showing females in a
particular population in five-year age groups (also called cohorts). Males are conventionally
shown on the left and females on the right, and they may be measured by raw number or as
a percentage of the total population. Population pyramids are often viewed as the most
effective way to graphically depict the age and sex distribution of a population, partly
because of the very clear image these pyramids present.
Population pyramid of India in 2015
Population pyramid of India in 2100
The demographic dividend is a window of opportunity provided to us by the transitional phase in the
age structure. For this dividend to yield results we will have to generate sufficient employment
opportunities for our young workforce, increase the level of education and develop their skills.
Declining sex ratio in India:
Sex ratio is an indicator of gender balance in the population. In India sex ratio has declined from 972
in 1901 to being 933 in the 20th century.
The main cause of worry is decline in child sex ratio. It has fallen from being 972 in the year 1961 to
927 in the year 2001.
Age specific sex ratios began to be computed in 1961. Highest overall sex ratio is in Sikkim (986) and
lowest is in Punjab (793).
Reasons for decline:
- MMR has gone down so death of women at childbirth cannot be the reason of falling sex ratio in
India. So decline in the child sex ratio is the main culprit here.
-Decline in child sex ratio is mainly due to reasons like female infanticide, selective abortion, and
neglect of girl child. This problem of low child sex ratio is the worst in the prosperous regions like
Punjab, Chandigarh, and Maharashtra which proves that poverty and ignorance are not responsible
for this social problem of selective abortion.
Govt has passed PCPNDT Act 1996 and strengthened it further in 2003 but a law is not of much use
until a change in social attitude is affected through mutual effort.
Literacy:
Literacy is as prerequisite to education is a tool for empowerment.
The more educated the population the more is the awareness of the opportunities available.
Education can lead to health awareness.
Literacy rate for women is 22% less than that of men. Historically disadvantaged section sof the
society like STs and SCs have a lower rate of literacy. The inequalities in the literacy rate are specially
important because they tend to reproduce inequality across generations. Illiterate parents are at a
severe disadvantage in ensuring that their children are well educated, thus perpetuating existing
inequalities.
Rural-Urban Differences:
The vast majority of population in India has always lived in villages but the number of people living in
urban areas has increased gradually.
This has happened due to,
1). Agriculture which used to be the largest contributor to the economic production, now
contributes only 1/4th of the GDP. Rural people are now engaged in non-rural farm sectors like
transport services, business enterprises or craft manufacturing.
2).Mass transit and mass communications are now bridging the gap between rural and urban areas
3). The flow of rural-to-urban migration has also been accelerated by the continuous decline of
common property resources like ponds, forests and grazing lands. These common resources enabled
poor people to survive in the villages although they owned little or no land. Now, these resources
have been turned into private property, or they are exhausted.
4). Sometimes the city may also be preferred for social reasons, specially the relative anonymity it
offers. For the socially oppressed groups like the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, this may
offer some partial protection from the daily humiliation they may suffer in the village where
everyone knows their caste identity. The anonymity of the city also allows the poorer sections of the
socially dominant rural groups to engage in low status work that they would not be able to do in the
village.
The population policy of India:
The population policy took the concrete form of the National Family Planning Programme. The
broad objectives of this programme have remained the same – to try to influence the rate and
pattern of population growth in socially desirable directions.
The National Family Planning Programme was renamed as the National Family Welfare Programme
after the Emergency, and coercive methods (forcible sterilisations of poor people) were no longer
used.
Chapter 3: Social Institutions: Continuity and change
Three institutions central to Indian society,
1). Caste
2). Tribe
3). Family
Caste in the past:
English word caste is a borrowing from Portuguese word ‘casta’ meaning pure breed. The word
refers to a broad institutional arrangement that in Indian languages is referred to by two distinct
terms, namely,
 Varna
 Jati
What is Varna?
Varna (colour) is a 4 fold division of the society into Brahmins, kshatriyas, vaishyas and shudras. It
excludes a significant section of the population composed of outcastes, foreigners, slaves and
others, sometimes referred to as panchamas or fifth category.
What is Jati?
Jati is a generic term referring to species or kinds of anything, ranging from inanimate objects to
plants, animals and human beings. Jati is the word most commonly used to refer to the institution of
caste in Indian languages.
Relationship between Jati and Varna:
Varna
Jati
1).Broad all-India classification
1). Regional or local sub-classification
2).The four Varna classification is common
to all India.
2). the Jati hierarchy has more local classifications
that vary from region to region. It has
many castes and sub-castes.
Age of the caste system:
It is estimated to be 3000years old. Caste system had different meanings in different times. In later
Vedic period between 900BC- 500BC the caste system was really the 4 varna system and consisted of
only 4 major divisions. These divisions were not very rigid and were not determined by birth.
Movement across categories was quite common. It is only in the post Vedic period that caste
became the rigid institution that is familiar to us from well known definitions.
Features of caste: Prescribed rules wrt castes found in scriptural texts,
1). Caste is determined by birth and is not a matter of choice.
2). Caste groups are endogamous i.e. marriage restricted within caste
3). Specific rules regarding food and food sharing
4). Hierarchical system of caste wherein all the castes are arranged as per their rank and status
5). Segmental organization: The division of castes into sub-castes and further division of sub-castes
into more sub-castes.
6). Castes traditionally linked to occupations. A member of a particular caste could only practice a
certain pre-specified occupation.
A combo of 2 set of principles = Caste
What are those principles based on?
1). Difference and separation: Each caste is supposed to be different from and is therefore strictly
separated from every other caste. Many of the scriptural rules of caste are thus designed to prevent
the mixing of castes rules ranging from marriage, food sharing and social interaction to occupation
2). Wholism: Different and separated castes do not have an individual existence they can only exist
in relation to a larger whole, the totality of society consisting of all castes.
Hierarchy: Each individual caste occupies not just a distinct place, but also an ordered rank a
particular position in a ladder-like arrangement going from highest to lowest.
Hierarchical ordering of castes is based upon distinction between purity and pollution. Higher castes
are pure while lower castes are polluting in nature.
Colonialism and Caste:
Scholars have agreed that all major social institutions and specially the institution of caste
underwent major changes during the colonial period. Initially, the British administrators began by
trying to understand the complexities of caste in an effort to learn how to govern the country
efficiently. Some of these efforts took the shape of very methodical and intensive surveys and
reports on the ‘customs and manners’ of various tribes and castes all over the country.
The most important exercise undertaken by the British to collect info on caste was the census.
1860s: Census began to be conducted
1881: Census became a regular ten yearly exercise
 1901: This census conducted under Herbert Risley was done to collect info on the social
hierarchy of the caste. This effort had a huge impact on social perceptions of caste and
hundreds of petitions were addressed to the Census Commissioner by representatives of
different castes claiming a higher position in the social scale and offering historical and
scriptural evidence for their claims. Such exercise to count caste and officially record caste
status made granted caste a new lease of life and the previous fluid and less rigid, caste, now
became a rigid identity.
 The land revenue settlements and related arrangements and laws served to give legal
recognition to the customary (caste-based) rights of the upper castes.
 The GOI Act 1935 gave a legal recognition to the lists or schedules of castes and tribes that
were to receive special treatment from the government. This is how the terms ‘Scheduled
Tribes’ and the ‘Scheduled Castes’ came into being.
Caste in the present:
Caste considerations had inevitably played a role in the mass mobilisations of the nationalist
movement. Efforts to organize depressed classes and particularly the untouchable castes predated
the nationalist movement, having begun in the second half of the nineteenth century.
Protests against untouchability were started by MK Gandhi and Babasaheb Ambedkar in 1920s.
By the time Independence was on horizon there was a broad agreement across the nationalist
movement in favour of abolishing caste distinctions.
The post-Independence India instead of abolishing the caste, reflected a contradictory scenario
wherein,
On the one hand, the state was committed to the abolition of caste and explicitly wrote this into the
Constitution. On the other hand, the state was both unable and unwilling to push through radical
reforms which would have undermined the economic basis for caste inequality.
In the decades immediately after Independence, the state did not make sufficient effort to deal with
the fact that the upper castes and the lower castes were far from equal in economic and educational
terms.
Caste in employment:
The development activity of the state and the growth of private industry also affected caste
indirectly through the speeding up and intensification of economic change.
Urbanisation and the conditions of collective living in the cities made it difficult for the caste
segregated patterns of social interaction to survive. Though modern educated Indians attracted to
ideas of individualism and meritocracy began abandoning caste practices but caste proved resilient
too. The middlemen recruiting for the companies tended to recruit members from their own caste.
So the prejudice against the lower castes or untouchables remained in the cities, though not as
extreme as in the villages.
Not so porous boundaries:
Thus, caste has proved to be strongest in the cultural and domestic spheres. While some boundaries
may have become more flexible or porous, the borders between groups of castes of similar socioeconomic status are still heavily patrolled. For eg:- For example, inter-caste marriages within the
upper castes (eg., brahmin, bania, rajput) may be more likely now than before; but marriages
between an upper caste and backward or scheduled caste person remain rare even today.
Caste and politics:
Caste remains central to electoral politics in India. There has been emergence of explicitly castebased political parties since 1980s.
Sanskritisation: (term given by M.N Srinivasa) It refers to a process whereby members of a (usually
middle or lower) caste attempt to raise their own social status by adopting the ritual, domestic and
social practices of a caste (or castes) of higher status.
The patterns for emulation chosen most often were the brahmin or kshatriya castes; practices
included adopting vegetarianism, wearing of sacred thread, performance of specific prayers and
religious ceremonies, and so on.
Sanskritisation usually accompanies or follows a rise in the economic status of the caste attempting
it, though it may also occur independently.
Dominant caste: (termed by M.N Srinivasa)
It is a term used to refer to those castes which had a large population and were granted landrights
by the partial land reforms effected after Independence.
How some castes became dominant?
The land reforms after independence took away the rights from the erstwhile claimants i.e. the
upper castes (absentee landlords- they lived in cities and only exacted rent from their land owned in
the countryside) and gave them to the intermediary castes like Yadavs in UP, Jats in Punjab, Haryana
and Western UP etc who themselves did not worked upon these lands but in turn depended upon
the lower caste i.e. untouchables for tilling and tending to these lands. Thus, these intermediate
castes became the ‘dominant’ castes in the country side and played a decisive role in regional
politics and the agrarian economy.
Caste paradox of recent times:
One of the most significant yet paradoxical changes in the caste system in the contemporary period
is that it has tended to become ‘invisible’ for the upper caste, urban middle and upper classes.
How these groups benefitted?
In particular, the upper caste elite were able to benefit from subsidised public education, especially
professional education in science, technology, medicine and management. At the same time, they
were also able to take advantage of the expansion of state sector jobs in the early decades after
Independence. In this initial period, their lead over the rest of society (in terms of education)
ensured that they did not face any serious competition.
For this group, it now seems that caste plays no part in their public lives, being limited to the
personal sphere of relgious practice or marriage and kinship.
For the so called scheduled castes and tribes and the backward castes – the opposite has happened.
For them their caste is the only lifeline left to them in today’s times. Due to the lack of inherited
social or educational capital and due to the fact that they must compete with upper caste group they
cannot abandon their identity.
The juxtaposition of these two groups – a seemingly caste-less upper caste group and an apparently
caste-defined lower caste group – is one of the central aspects of the institution of caste in the
present.
Tribal communities:
What is a tribe?
‘Tribe’ is a modern term for communities that are very old, being among the oldest inhabitants of
the sub-continent.
Tribes in India have generally been defined in terms of what they were not.
 Tribes were communities that did not practice a religion with a written text;
 did not have a state or political form of the normal kind;
 did not have sharp class divisions;
 and, most important, they did not have caste and were neither Hindus nor peasants.
The term was introduced in the colonial era.
Classification of tribal societies:
1). Permanent traits: Region, language, physical characteristics, ecological habitat
Region: The tribal population of India is widely dispersed, but there are also concentrations in
certain regions. About 85% of the tribal population lives in ‘middle India’, a wide band stretching
from Gujarat and Rajasthan in the west to West Bengal and Orissa in the east, with Madhya Pradesh,
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and parts of Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh forming the heart of this
region. Of the remaining 15%, over 11% is in the North Eastern states, leaving only a little over 3%
living in the rest of India.
North Eastern states have the highest concentrations of tribal societies.
Ecological characteristics: The ecological habitats covered include hills, forests, rural plains and
urban industrial areas.
Language: In terms of language tribes are categorised into 4 language groups,
Indo-Aryan
Dravidian
Austric
Tibeto Burman
Size: The biggest tribes are the Gonds, Bhils, Santhals, Oraons, Minas, Bodos and Mundas, all of
whom are at least a million strong.
2). Acquired Traits
Classifications based on acquired traits use two main criteria – mode of livelihood, and extent of
incorporation into Hindu society – or a combination of the two.
Mode of livelihood: Tribes can be categorised into fishermen, food gatherers and hunters, shifting
cultivators, peasants and plantation and industrial workers
Degree of assimilation in the Hindu society: Assimilation can be seen either from the point of view
of the tribes, or (as has been most often the case) from the point of view of the dominant Hindu
mainstream.
From the tribe’s point of view, apart from the extent of assimilation, attitude towards Hindu society
is also a major criterion, with differentiation between tribes that are positively inclined towards
Hinduism and those who resist or oppose it.
From the mainstream point of view, tribes may be viewed in terms of the status accorded to them in
Hindu society, ranging from the high status given to some, to the generally low status accorded to
most.
Mainstream attitude towards tribes:
The isolationist side argued that tribals needed protection from traders, moneylenders and Hindu
and Christian missionaries, all of whom were intent on reducing tribals to detribalised landless
labour. The integrationists, on the other hand, argued that tribals were merely backward Hindus,
and their problems had to be Indian Society addressed within the same framework as that of other
backward classes. This opposition dominated the Constituent Assembly debates, which were finally
settled along the lines of a compromise which advocated welfare schemes that would enable
controlled integration
National Development vs Tribal development (imp)
The imperatives of ‘development’ have governed attitudes towards tribes and shaped the policies of
the state. National development, particularly in the Nehruvian era, involved the building of large
dams, factories and mines. Because the tribal areas were located in mineral rich and forest covered
parts of the country, tribals have paid a disproportionate price for the development of the rest of
Indian society. This kind of development has benefited the mainstream at the expense of the tribes.
The process of dispossessing tribals of their land has occurred as a necessary byproduct of the
exploitation of minerals and the utilisation of favourable sites for setting up hydroelectric power
plants, many of which were in tribal areas.
The loss of the forests on which most tribal communities depended has been a major blow. Forests
started to be systematically exploited in British times and the trend continued after Independence.
The coming of private property in land has also adversely affected tribals, whose community-based
forms of collective ownership were placed at a disadvantage in the new system.
Examples: The most recent such example is the series of dams being built on the Narmada, where
most of the costs and benefits seem to flow disproportionately to different communities and
regions. Many tribal concentration regions and states have also been experiencing the problem of
heavy in-migration of non-tribals in response to the pressures of development. This threatens to
disrupt and overwhelm tribal communities and cultures, besides accelerating the process of
exploitation of tribals.
The industrial areas of Jharkhand for example have suffered a dilution of the tribal share of
population. But the most dramatic cases are probably in the North-East. A state like Tripura had the
tribal share of its population halved within a single decade, reducing them to a minority. Similar
pressure is being felt by Arunachal Pradesh.
Tribes today:
Forced incorporation of tribal communities into mainstream processes has had its impact on tribal
culture and society as much as its economy.
Because the interaction with the mainstream has generally been on terms unfavourable to the tribal
communities, many tribal identities today are centred on ideas of resistance and opposition to the
overwhelming force of the non-tribal world.
Two broad sets of issues have been most important in giving rise to tribal movements. These are
issues relating to control over vital economic resources like land and specially forests, and issues
relating to matters of ethnic-cultural identity.
The two can often go together, but with differentiation of tribal society they may also diverge. The
reasons why the emerging middle classes within tribal societies may assert their tribal identity may
be different from the reasons why poor and uneducated tribals join tribal movements. As with any
other community, it is the relationship between these kinds of internal dynamics and external forces
that will shape the future.
Family and kinship:
The structure of the family can be studied both as a social institution in itself and also in its
relationship to other social institutions of society.
In itself a family can be defined as
 nuclear or extended.
 It can be male-headed or female-headed.
 The line of descent can be matrilineal or patrilineal
The composition of the family and its structure changes and these changes can be understood in
relation to other changes in society. The family (the private sphere) is linked to the economic,
political, cultural, and educational (the public) spheres.
The changes can happen accidentally like during war and sometimes these changes are brought
about, as when young people decide to choose their spouses instead of letting elders decide or
when same sex love is expressed openly in society. Both history and contemporary times suggest
that often change in family and marriage norms are resisted violently.
Nuclear Family: A nuclear family consists of only one set of parents and their children.
Extended family: An extended family (commonly known as the ‘joint family’) can take different
forms, but has more than one couple, and often more than two generations, living together. This
could be a set of brothers with their individual families, or an elderly couple with their sons and
grandsons and their respective families. The extended family often is seen as symptomatic of India.
The diverse forms of the family:
With regard to rule of residence –
Matrilocal (Where married couples live with woman’s parents)
Patrilocal (where married couples live with man’s parents)
With regard to the rules of inheritance Matrilineal societies pass on property from mother to daughter but daughters do not exercise
control over it
Patrilineal societies do so from father to son.
Patriarchy structure exists where the men exercise authority and dominance
Matriarchy structure exists where the women play a similarly dominant role. However, matriarchy
unlike patriarchy has been a theoretical rather than an empirical concept. There is no historical or
anthropological evidence of matriarchy i.e., societies where women exercise dominance.
Chapter 4: The Market as a Social Institution
What will we learn from this chapter?
The markets are themselves social institutions, and are connected to other aspects of the social
structure, such as caste and class, in various ways.
There is a social and symbolic significance attached to consumption of things that goes far beyond its
immediate economic purpose.
The mode of exchanging or circulating goods & services is rapidly changing due to liberalisation of
Indian economy and globalisation.
Market is both an economic and social institution.
Sociological perspectives on Markets and the economy:
Adam Smith was apolitical economist during 18th century in England and he wrote a book titled “The
Wealth of the nations”.
In this book he defined a market economy being made up of a series of individual exchanges or
transactions which automatically creates a functioning and ordered system. Each person looks only
to their own self-interest, but in the pursuit of this self-interest the interests of all or of society also
seem to be looked after. In this sense, there seem to an unseen force at work that converts what is
good for each individual into what is good for society. This unseen force was called ‘the invisible
hand’ by Adam Smith.
He argued that,
 Capitalist economy is driven by individual self-interest and works best when individual
buyers and sellers make rational decisions that serve their own interests.
Smith supported the idea of a ‘free market’, that is, a market free from all kinds of regulation
whether by the state or otherwise. This economic philosophy was also given the name laissez-faire
(ley-zey, fehr) a French phrase that means ‘leave alone’ or ‘let it be’.
As per sociologists markets are socially embedded meaning markets are often controlled or
organised by particular social groups or classes, and have specific connections to other institutions,
social processes and structures.
The weekly market as a social institution can be illustrated by tribal market in Dhorai, a village
located in the deep hinterland of North Bastar district in Chhattisgarh. The layout of the market
symbolises the hierarchical inter-group social relations in this region. Different social groups are
located according to their position in the caste and social hierarchy as well as in the market system.
The wealthy and high-ranking Rajput jeweller and the middle-ranking local Hindu traders sit in the
central ‘zones’, and the tribal sellers of vegetables and local wares in the outer circles. The quality of
social relations is expressed in the kinds of goods that are bought and sold, and the way in which
transactions are carried out. For instance, interactions between tribals and non-tribal traders are
very different than those between Hindus of the same community: they express hierarchy and social
distance rather than social equality.
A study of Nakarattar community of Tamilnadu during the colonial period shows how its banking
and trade activities were deeply embedded in the social organisation of the community. The
structures of caste, kinship, and family were oriented towards commercial activity, and business
activity was carried out within these social structures. As in most ‘traditional’ merchant
communities, Nakarattar banks were basically joint family firms, so that the structure of the business
firm was the same as that of the family. Similarly, trading and banking activities were organised
through caste and kinship relationships. For instance, their extensive caste-based social networks
allowed Chettiar merchants to expand their activities into Southeast Asia and Ceylon. In one view,
the economic activities of the Nakarattars represented a kind of indigenous capitalism.
Certain communities have carried out trade from a very long time and have become synonymous
with trade like Baniyas of North India. There are many caste groups which have entered trade and
claim Vaisya status in the process of upward mobility
Reason for caste based specialisation in trade
One of the reasons for this caste-based specialisation is that trade and commerce often operate
through caste and kinship networks, as we have seen in the case of the Nakarattars. Because
businessmen are more likely to trust others of their own community or kin group, they tend to do
business within such networks rather than with others outside – and this tends to create a caste
monopoly within certain areas of business.
Colonialism and the Emergence of new markets:
The advent of colonialism in India produced major upheavals in the economy, causing disruptions in
production, trade, and agriculture like the demise of handloom industry due to the flooding in of
manufactured textiles from England.
In colonial era India began to be more fully linked with the world capitalist economy. Now it became
a consumer of manufactured goods and a source of raw materials.
Many Europeans entered into trade and alliances with the existing merchant communities. The
changing economic scenario provided a platform for many new communities to enter this arena like
Marwaris. The existing ones reoriented themselves to the changing economic scenario and
continued with their trade practices.
The Marwaris became a successful business community only during the colonial period, when they
took advantage of new opportunities in colonial cities such as Calcutta and settled throughout the
country to carry out trade and money lending. Like Nakarattars they also thrived on their extensive
social network which created relations of trust necessary to operate their banking system.
Marwaris transformed from small migrant traders to merchant bankers to industrialists post
independence.
Understanding Capitalism as a Social system:
What Karl Marx thought about capitalism?
He considered capitalism as a system of commodity production or producing for the market, through
the use of wage labour. He emphasised that the economy does not consist of things (goods
circulating in the market), but is made up of relations between people who are connected to one
another through the process of production.
Labour = commodity (Under capitalist modes of production)
Labour must sell their labour power which in turn gives rise to two classes,
1) Capitalists = Who own the factories
2) Workers = Who sell their labour to capitalists
The capitalists profits by extracting the surplus value from the labour by paying them less.
Commoditisation and consumption:
Commodification: It occurs when things previously not traded in market become commodities. A
commodity need not be a thing, it can be a service
Examples of Commodification:
 Labour or skills
 Sale of body-parts for transplant
 In India, Marriage bureaus have commoditised the whole process of arranging marriages
which previously was done by families only.
 Education
Another feature of capitalist society is that Consumption becomes more and more important, not
just for economic reasons but it has a symbolic meaning associated with it.
The term status symbol coined by Max Weber points to the value attached to the relation between
the things people buy and have Vis a Vis their social status.
Moreover, consumption is just one aspect of lifestyle.
Sociologists study consumption patterns and lifestyles because of their cultural and social
significance in modern life.
Globalisation: Interlinking of local, regional, national and international markets:
The change in economic policy from one of state-led development to a more liberalised one has
ushered in a new era of globalisation in India.
What is Globalisation?
The term globalisation includes a number of trends, especially the increase in international
movement of commodities, money, information, and people, as well as the development of
technology (such as in computers, telecommunications, and transport) and other infrastructure to
allow this movement.
Globalisation is due to Liberalisation of Indian economy that was started in 1980s.
Integration: A central feature of globalisation is the increasing extension and integration of the
markets around the world meaning that changes in one part of the globe may have a profound
impact somewhere else far away.
For instance, India’s booming software industry may face a slump if the U.S. economy does badly (as
happened after the 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Centre in New York), leading to loss of business
and jobs here. BPO (like call centres) and software services industry are major avenues through
which India is getting connected to the global economy.
Under globalisation, not only money and goods, but also people, cultural products, and images can
become commodities themselves.
Example: An example is the marketing of Indian spirituality and knowledge systems (such as yoga
and ayurveda) in the West.
Culture can also become a commodity.
Example: Pushkar Mela an annual traditional cattle market held in Rajasthan can itself become a
commodity for sale in market like a foreign writer mentioning about Pushkar Mela in his guide book
of India for foreign tourists. SO here the Pushkar mela has become a commodity for tourism market.
What is Liberalisation or marketisation?
It is the “removal of controls” in order to encourage economic development or the use of markets or
market-based processes (rather than government regulations or policies) to solve social, political, or
economic problems.
What does liberalisation include?
 the privatisation of public sector enterprises (selling government-owned companies to
private companies);
 loosening of government regulations on capital, labour, and trade;
 a reduction in tariffs and import duties so that foreign goods can be imported more easily;
 Allowance of easier access for foreign companies to set up industries.
 removing government controls over wages and prices
Reason given for Marketisation:
The advocates of marketisation say that these steps will promote economic growth and prosperity
because private industry is more efficient than government-owned industry.
Reasons given against Liberalisation:
Those against liberalisation argue that
 Liberalisation and globalisation have had, or will have, a negative net impact on India i.e. the
costs and disadvantages will be more than the advantages and benefits. Some sectors of
Indian industry (like software and information technology) or agriculture (like fish or fruit)
may benefit from access to a global market, but other sectors (like automobiles, electronics
or oilseeds) will lose because they cannot compete with foreign producers.
Example: Indian farmers are now exposed to global competition as import of agricultural goods is
allowed. Moreover, liberalisation is against subsidies and support price mechanism designed to
protect farmers. So these support measures are reduced or have been withdrawn due to
marketisation which has led to farmers living in poverty and not being able to compete against the
imported goods.
The privatisation or closing of Public sector enterprises has led to a loss of employment and has led
to growth of unorganised employment sector which is not good for workers as it doesn’t provide the
same benefits and security as an organised sector employment does.
Chapter 5: Patterns of social inequality and exclusion
What we will learn from this chapter:
1). Role of institutions like family, caste, tribe, market etc in creating and sustaining inequality and
exclusion
For most of us who are born and live in India, social inequality and exclusion are facts of life. This
everydayness of social inequality and exclusion often make them appear inevitable, almost natural
to us.
Hard work alone is not enough:
It is true that hard work matters, and so does individual ability. If all other things were equal, then
personal effort, talent and luck would surely account for all the differences between individuals. But,
as is almost always the case, all other things are not equal. It is these non-individual or group
differences that explain social inequality and exclusion.
Social Inequality:
Patterns of unequal access to social resources are commonly called Social inequality.
In every society, some people have a greater share of valued resources like money, property,
education, health, power etc than others.
Social inequality is produced by the society in which we live in and does not depend upon indigenous
qualities or differences between the people.
These social resources can be divided into 3 forms of capital:
1). Economic Capital – material assets and income
2). Cultural Capital – educational qualifications and status
3). Social Capital – in the form of network of social contacts and associations.
One type of capital can be converted to another type of capital.
For example, a person from a well-off family (economic capital) can afford expensive higher
education, and so can acquire cultural or educational capital. Someone with influential relatives and
friends (social capital) may – through access to good advice, recommendations or information –
manage to get a well-paid job.
Social stratification – It refers to a system by which categories of people in a society are ranked in a
hierarchy. This hierarchy then shapes people’s identity and experiences, their relations with others,
as well as their access to resources and opportunities.
3 principles on which social stratification depends:1). Social stratification is a characteristic of society, not simply a function of individual differences.
Social stratification is a society-wide system that unequally distributes social resources among
categories of people.
2). Social stratification persists over generations. That is, children assume the social positions of their
parents. Within the caste system, birth dictates occupational opportunities. A Dalit is likely to be
confined to traditional occupations such as agricultural labour, scavenging, or leather work, with
little chance of being able to get high-paying white-collar or professional work.
3). Social stratification is supported by patterns of belief, or ideology. No system of social
stratification is likely to persist over generations unless it is widely viewed as being either fair or
inevitable. Like caste system.
Social exclusion and discrimination is not only limited to differential access to economic resources
but extend to caste, ethnicity, religion, language, gender and disability.
People often harbour prejudices against other people or groups.
So what is a prejudice?
Prejudice – It refers to preconceived attitudes, opinions and notions held by members of one group
towards another. A prejudiced person’s preconceived views are often based on hearsay rather than
on direct evidence, and are resistant to change even in the face of new information. Generally
prejudice is used in a negative sense where it involves negative pre-judgement.
What is a stereotype?
Whereas prejudice involves attitudes, stereotypes on the other hand are cognitions or beliefs. These
are general statements which are applied to everyone belonging to a particular caste, group,
religion, ethnicity etc. Like in India some colonial stereotypes are where some races are considered
martial while some others are considered cowardly and effeminate.
What is discrimination?
Discrimination is behaviour based on stereotypes and prejudices. Discrimination can be seen in
practices that disqualify members of one group from opportunities open to others, as when a person
is refused a job because of their gender or religion.
Social Exclusion: It refers to ways in which individuals may become cut off from full involvement in
the wider society. It prevents individuals or groups from having opportunities open to the majority
of the population.
Social exclusion is systematic and involuntary (against the wishes of the excluded). Prolonged
exclusion produces a reaction wherein excluded groups stop trying for inclusion. Like Dalits might
build their own temples or convert to other religion to escape the exclusion handed to them from
upper class Hindu communities.
The caste system as a discriminatory system:
The caste system is a distinct Indian social institution that legitimises and enforces practices of
discrimination against people born into particular castes. These practices of discrimination are
humiliating, exclusionary and exploitative.
As per scriptures the social and economic status were supposed to be sharply separated but in
actual historical practice economic and social status tended to coincide meaning the ‘high’ castes
were almost invariably of high economic status, while the ‘low’ castes were almost always of low
economic status.
At present, though these distinctions are not very rigid meaning occupational change is not as
difficult as was in previous days but still majority of privileged and of high economic status sections
of the society tend to be overwhelmingly ‘upper caste’ while the disadvantaged (and low economic
status) sections are dominated by the so called ‘lower’ castes.
Untouchability:
Untouchability is an extreme and vicious aspect of caste system wherein strict social sanctions are
prescribed against the members of the caste located at the bottom of the purity-pollution scale.
There are 3 main dimensions of untouchability, namely,
1). Exclusion
2). Humiliation – subordination
3). Exploitation
Other low caste members also face discrimination and humiliation but the worst kind of humiliation
is reserved for Dalits.
For example: Being prohibited from sharing drinking water sources or participating in collective
religious worship, social ceremonies and festivals.
The performance of publicly visible acts of (self-) humiliation and subordination is an important part
of the practice of untouchability.
For example: Common instances include the imposition of gestures of deference (such as taking off
headgear, carrying footwear in the hand, standing with bowed head, not wearing clean or ‘bright’
clothes, and so on) as well as routinised abuse and humiliation.
Untouchability also includes economic exploitation mainly in the form of unpaid or under-paid
labour or confiscation of the property.
Untouchables have been referred to by very derogatory names over the past centuries. There use
today is a criminal offence. Mahatma Gandhi had popularised the term ‘Harijan’ (literally, children
of God) in the 1930s to counter the pejorative (means expressing disapproval) charge carried by
caste names.
However, the ex-untouchable communities and their leaders have coined another term, ‘Dalit’,
which is now the generally accepted term for referring to these groups. In Indian languages, the
term Dalit literally means ‘downtrodden’ and conveys the sense of an oppressed people.
State and Non-State initiatives against caste and tribe discrimination:
The Indian state has had special programmes for the Scheduled Tribes and Scheduled Castes since
even before Independence. The ‘Schedules’ listing the castes and tribes recognised as deserving of
special treatment because of the massive discrimination practiced against them were drawn up in
1935, by the British Indian government. After Independence, the same policies have been continued
and many new ones added. Among the most significant additions is the extension of special
programmes to the Other Backward Classes (OBCs) since the early 1990s.
Reservations have been introduced to compensate for past and present caste discrimination. It
involves setting aside of some seats in different spheres of public life like Govt jobs, educational
institutions, PSUs, Central and State legislatures etc
Number of laws have been passed to end, prohibit and punish caste discrimination especially
untouchability.
1). Caste Disabilities Removal Act of 1850- It disallowed the curtailment of rights of citizens due
solely to change of religion or caste. The 1850 Act was used to allow entry of Dalits to government
schools.
2). Constitution of India adopted in 1950 contained Article 17 which abolished untouchability.
3). Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act of 1989 - This Act revised
and strengthened the legal provisions punishing acts of violence or humiliation against Dalits and
adivasis.
4). Constitution Amendment (Ninety Third Amendment) Act of 2005 – It became a law on 23rd Jan
2006. This amendment is for introducing reservation for the Other Backward Classes in institutions
of higher education.
Despite of above acts, untouchability has still not ceased to exist and is very much a part of our
society. Discrimination against tribals, Dalits, adivasis is prevalent even today which proves that state
action alone cannot usher in a social change.
Dalits themselves have been increasingly active on the political, agitational, and cultural fronts.
From the pre-Independence struggles and movements launched by people like Jotiba Phule,
Iyotheedas, Periyar, Ambedkar and others to contemporary political organisations like the Bahujan
Samaj Party in Uttar Pradesh or the Dalit Sangharsh Samiti of Karnataka, Dalit political assertion has
come a long way. Dalits have also made significant contributions to literature in several Indian
languages especially Marathi, Kannada, Tamil, Telugu and Hindi.
The Other Backward Classes (OBCs)
Certain castes were not subjected to untouchability but had to face discrimination. These were the
service and artisanal castes occupying the lower rungs of the caste hierarchy. Such castes other than
STs and SCs who suffered or continue to suffer from social disadvantages have been categorised as
Other Backward Classes or OBCs.
OBCs form a much diverse group. Why?
Like Tribe OBCs are also defined by what they are not. They are neither part of the ‘forward’ castes
at the upper end of the status spectrum, nor of the Dalits at the lower end. Since caste has
penetrated into other religions as well so there are members of other religions too that belong to
backward class and have same traditional occupational identification and worse socio-economic
status.
First Backward Classes Commission headed by Kaka Kalelkar: It was appointed by first govt of
independent India to look into the issue of welfare of OBCs. It submitted its report in 1953
The Second Backward Classes Commission headed by B.P. Mandal was appointed in 1970s. In 1990,
central government decided to implement the ten-year old Mandal Commission report.
The large disparities between the upper OBCs (who are largely landed castes and enjoy dominance
in rural society in many regions of India) and the lower OBCs (who are very poor and disadvantaged,
and are often not very different from Dalits in socio-economic terms) make this a difficult political
category to work with. However, the OBCs are severely under-represented in all spheres except
landholding and political representation (they have a large number of MLAs and MPs). Although the
upper OBCs are dominant in the rural sector, the situation of urban OBCs is much worse, being much
closer to that of the Scheduled Castes and Tribes than to the upper castes.
Adivasi Struggles
Adivasis - literal meaning is ‘original inhabitants’. The term was coined in 1930s as a part of struggle
against the outside forces such as colonial govt, moneylenders and outside-settlers.
They are categorised under Scheduled tribes and are recognised by Indian Constitution as specially
marked by poverty, social stigma and powerlessness.
Where are Adivasis located?
Today only NE states have large tribal populations. In other Indian states there are only pockets of
tribal concentration.
Historical overview of situation of Adivasis
The current situation of Adivasis in which they live in abject poverty can be traced to the patterns of
resources extraction started by British government and followed on subsequently by the Indian
government.
From the late 19th century British govt imposed restrictions on the usage of forest resources by the
adivasis population by reserving the tracts of forest land for its own use. This lead to
impoverishment of adivasis as they were solely dependent on forests for their sustenance forcing
them to either use forest resources illegally (for which they were prosecuted as thieves and
encroachers) or migrate in search of labour.
After independence, the situation didn’t become any better. Why?
1). the government monopoly over forests continued. If anything, the exploitation of forests
accelerated.
2). the policy of capital-intensive industrialisation adopted by the Indian government required
mineral resources and power-generation capacities which were concentrated in Adivasi areas.
Adivasi lands were rapidly acquired for new mining and dam projects and millions of adivasis were
displaced without any proper compensation or rehabilitation.
In post-Independence India, the most significant achievements of Adivasi movements include the
attainment of statehood for Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh, which were originally part of Bihar and
Madhya Pradesh respectively. In this respect adivasis and their struggles are different from the
Dalit struggle because, unlike Dalits, adivasis were concentrated in contiguous areas and could
demand states of their own.
Environmental conflict sites: Narmada, Singrauli, Tehri, Hirakud, Koel Karo, Suvarnarekha,
Nagarhole, Plachimada, Kalinganagar
Struggle for Women’s Equality and Rights
Apart from the obvious physical and biological differences between men and women, social
differences also exist between them.
Women today are discriminated on the basis of their gender in every field today. Despite having
matrilineal societies like Khasis of Meghalaya that have existed for centuries, women are seen as
being unfit to be designated as inheritors and heads of the families. In many African countries,
women have shown themselves to be successful traders and farmers but still after all these
examples before us, women discrimination exists.
What will we learn here?
How gender inequality came to be recognised as inequality in the Indian context, and the kinds of
responses that this recognition produced.
The women’s question arose in India due to Middle class reform movements in the 19th century.
Why these reform movements were termed as Middle Class reform movements?
They were termed so because of being lead by the leaders from the newly emerging western
educated middle class.
These leaders were inspired by,
 the democratic ideals of the modern West
 By the deep pride in their own democratic traditions of the past.
Examples:
 Anti-sati campaign led by Raja Rammohun Roy (middle class social reformer) in Bengal.
Rammohun Roy’s ideas represented a curious mixture of Western rationality and an
assertion of Indian traditionality.
 The widow remarriage movement in the Bombay Presidency where Ranade was one of the
leading reformers. Ranade (upper caste reformer) used the writings of scholars such as
Bishop Joseph Butler. At the same time, M.G. Ranade’s writings entitled the The Texts of the
Hindu Law on the Lawfulness of the Remarriage of Widows and Vedic Authorities for
Widow Marriage elaborated the shastric sanction for remarriage of widows.
 Jyotiba Phule (he was from a socially excluded caste) attacked on caste and gender
oppression. He founded Satyashodhak Samaj. His first social reform efforts were for women
and untouchables
 The social reform movement in Islam was led by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan. He wanted girls to be
educated, but within the precincts of their homes. Like Dayanand Saraswati of the Arya
Samaj, he stood for women’s education but sought for a curriculum that included instruction
in religious principles, training in the arts of housekeeping and handicrafts and rearing of
children
Now, it is often said that the social reform movements for women were lead by male reformers and
that ideas of women equality are alien imports meaning imported from West or outside of India but
this argument can be easily refuted if one is familiar with works of women authors like Tarabai
Shinde (a maharashtrian housewife) who wrote Stree Purush Tulana in 1882 and Begum Rokeya
Sakhawat Hossain who wrote Sultana’s Dream in 1905.
Something more about Sultana’s Dream:
This remarkable short story is probably the earliest example of science fiction writing in India, and
among the first by a woman author anywhere in the world. In her dream, Sultana visits a magical
country where the gender roles are reversed. Men are confined to the home and observe ‘purdah’
while women are busy scientists vying with each other at inventing devices that will control the
clouds and regulate rain, and machines that fly or ‘air-cars’.
Women equality as a part of the nationalist vision:
During 20th Century many women organisations arose and women began taking part in the national
movement.
In 1931, the Karachi Session of the Indian National Congress issued a declaration on the
Fundamental Rights of Citizenship in India whereby it committed itself to women’s equality.
The declaration mentioned that Women shall have the right to vote, to represent and the right to
hold public offices.
Social change whether on women’s rights or any other issue is never a battle won once and for all.
As with other social issues the struggle is long, and the women’s movement in India will have to fight
to defend hard won rights as well as take up new issues as they emerge.
The Struggles of differently-abled
The differently abled are not ‘disabled’ only because they are physically or mentally ‘impaired’ but
also because society is built in a manner that does not cater to their needs. One of the leading
activists and scholars of disability in the Indian context, Anita Ghai, argues that this invisibility of the
disabled can be compared to the Invisible Man of Ralph Ellison.
The very term ‘differently abled’ is significant because it draws attention to the fact that public
perception of the ‘disabled’ needs to be questioned.
Indian Attitude towards differently-abled:
In a culture that looks up to bodily ‘perfection’, all deviations from the ‘perfect body’ signify
abnormality, defect and distortion. Labels such as bechara (poor thing) accentuate the victim status
for the disabled person.
The common perception views disability as retribution for past karma (actions) from which there can
be no reprieve. Disability is, thus, seen as a characteristic of the individual. Moreover, the popular
images in mythology portray the disabled in an extremely negative fashion.
Poverty and disability:
There is a close relationship between disability and poverty. Malnutrition, mothers weakened by
frequent childbirth, inadequate immunisation programmes, accidents in overcrowded homes, all
contribute to an incidence of disability among poor people that is higher than among people living in
easier circumstances.
Disability increases isolation and economic strain on the family.
The Persons with Disability (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act of
1995 is one of the key enactments, which provides for education, employment, creation of barrier
free environment, social security etc. The Act extends to the whole of India except the State of
Jammu and Kashmir. The Government of Jammu & Kashmir has enacted "The Persons with
Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights & Full Participation) Act, 1998".
Recognition of disability is absent from the wider educational discourse. This is evident from the
historical practices within the educational system that continue to marginalise the issue of disability
by maintaining two separate streams – one for disabled students and one for everyone else.
Chapter 6: The Challenges of Cultural diversity
What we will learn from this chapter?
 Some of the tensions and difficulties associated with cultural diversity
 What precisely does ‘cultural diversity’ mean, and why is it seen as a challenge?
Why Diversity presents challenges?
Diversity => Differences and not inequalities. India is a nation of great cultural diversity meaning
people with varied religion, caste, creed, language and race live here. When people with such
diverse backgrounds are a part of a bigger nation then difficulties are bound to arise due to conflict
or competition between them.
Sometimes cultural differences are accompanied by social and economic inequalities which further
complicates things because measures to address the inequalities or injustices suffered by one
community can provoke opposition from other communities. The situation is made worse when
scarce resources – like river waters, jobs or government funds – have to be shared.
Cultural communities and the Nation-State:
What we will learn from this topic?
 Why is it so important for people to belong to communities based on cultural identities like a
caste, ethnic group, region, or religion?
 Why is so much passion aroused when there is a perceived threat, insult, or injustice to
one’s community?
 Why do these passions pose problems for the nation-state?
The importance of Community identity:
Every human being needs a sense of stable identity to operate in this world. We are able to answer
questions like,
Who am I? How am I different from others?
Because of the way we are socialised or taught how to live in the society by our family and our
community. Our community provides us the language (our mother tongue) and the cultural values
through which we comprehend the world. It also anchors our self-identity.
Ascriptive identities: Identities determined by accidents of birth and do not involve any choice on
the part of the individuals concerned are called Ascriptive identities. For eg: Community identity
which is based on birth and belonging rather than some form of acquired qualification or
accomplishment is a form of Ascriptive identity.
Perhaps it is because of this accidental, unconditional and yet almost inescapable belonging that we
can often be so emotionally attached to our community identity.
Overlapping Circle of community ties gives meaning to our world and gives us a sense of identity, of
who we are.
For e.g.- I reside in my village and as per historical records all the villagers have one common
ancestor whose progeny gave rise to families that ultimately grew into a whole village. Therefore, all
villagers belong to the same community. Hence, when I say to someone that I belong to that village
and to that family I feel a sense of emotional attachment with people residing there and the village
itself. This gives me an identity and helps other people to identify me from the crowd of hundred
other people. People would identify me as a resident of that village community. If by any chance this
identity of mine is threatened in any way I would surely do anything to protect it.
Similar is the case with people belonging to other communities.
2nd Feature of Ascriptive identity
They are universal meaning everyone in this world (exceptions are always there) is loyal and
committed towards their respective Ascriptive identities like loyalty towards motherland, towards
mother tongue, towards family, towards faith etc.
Thus, the conflicts involving communities (like nation, caste or religion) are very hard to deal with
because each side in such conflicts think that it is right and construct matching but reverse mirror
images of each other. It may take decades before reaching some common ground in such identity
conflicts.
Communities, Nations and Nation-States
What is a Nation?
In simplest terms, a nation is a community of communities.
As per Max Weber, a state is a,
“body that successfully claims monopoly of a legitimate force in a particular territory”
A Nation is easy to describe but hard to define because it is hard to come up with any specific
characteristics that a nation must possess. For every possible criterion there are exceptions and
counter-examples.
For example: there are many nations that do not share a single common language, religion, ethnicity
and so on. On the other hand, there are many languages, religions or ethnicities that are shared
across nations. But this does not lead to the formation of a single unified nation of, say, all English
speakers or of all Buddhists.
One criterion that comes closest to distinguishing a nation is a state.
Nations are communities that have a state of their own.
New Development: One-Nation one-State; One-state one –nation is a new phenomenon.
One-state One-nation
In the past it was not true meaning that a State could represent various nations like Soviet Union
which itself recognised various nationalities.
State
Exception to One-State One-Nation
criterion
Nation 1
Nation
Nation 2
Nation 3
One-Nation One-state
Also, a single nation could have people of different nationalities like in Jamaica there are more nonJamaicans then the Jamaicans themselves. So this criterion also has its exceptions.
Nation
People from different
States
Conclusion: In short, today it is hard to define a nation in any way other than to say that it is a
community that has succeeded in acquiring a state of its own. Today, ‘the nation’ is the most
accepted or proper justification for a state, while ‘the people’ are the ultimate source of legitimacy
of the nation. In other words, states ‘need’ the nation as much or even more than nations need
states.
What is the difference between a state, a nation and a nation-state?
A nation-state differs from a "state" or a "nation" for a couple of important reasons:
A nation refers only to a socio-cultural entity, a union of people sharing who can identify culturally
and linguistically. This concept does not necessarily consider formal political unions.
A state refers to a legal/political entity that is comprised of the following: a) a permanent
population; b) a defined territory; c) a government; and d) the capacity to enter into relations with
other states.
Additional sources to refer: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/467746/politicalsystem/36702/National-political-systems#ref416908
What is an assimilationist policy?
Such policies are aimed at persuading, encouraging or forcing all citizens to adopt a uniform set of
cultural values and norms. These values and norms are usually entirely or largely those of the
dominant social group. Other, non-dominant or subordinated groups in society are expected or
required to give up their own cultural values and adopt the prescribed ones.
What is an integrationist policy?
They insist that the public culture be restricted to a common national pattern, while all ‘nonnational’ cultures are to be relegated to the private sphere. In this case too, there is the danger of
the dominant group’s culture being treated as ‘national’ culture.
Now, question arises as to why states tend to favour such policies?
States try to establish political legitimacy by adopting nation building strategies and how do they
pursue nation-building, by resorting to either Policies of integration or Policies of assimilation.
Community identities like language, religion, caste, race etc can act as basis of nation-formation so
already existing states treat them as rivals.
For example: An area having Sikh or Muslim or Hindu or any other such (community identity)
majority might demand separation from an already existing Indian state but it is not necessary that
this will happen. So if Indian state deliberately tries to homogenise such identities by replacing them
with a singular national identity, it will be termed as act of suppression on the part of Indian state
and this very act of suppression will lead to intensifying of the very community identity it set out to
exterminate.
Conclusion: Allowing cultural diversity is a good policy which fosters national unity. This diversity if
nurtured will further the cause of national unity.
Cultural Diversity and Indian Nation-State
The Indian nation-state is socially and culturally one of the most diverse countries of the world.
It is the third country with largest Muslim population after Indonesia and Pakistan.
As discussed above, to an already existing state different community identities are like rivals so
what is the case of Indian Nation-state?
India has ruled out as assimilationist policy since the very beginning. However, some sections of
Hindu community have expressed their demands for an assimilationist model.
Why India’s policy is not an integrationist one?
India doesn’t follow an integrationist policy. In an integrationist policy religion, language, caste and
such identities are restricted to private sphere however despite of being a secular state, different
community identities like religion, race, caste etc have been explicitly recognised by the state and
have been provided with a strong constitutional protection.
Hence, India can be considered as a very good example of a ‘state-nation’.
Regionalism in the Indian context
Why regionalism exists in India?
1). Diversity: Regionalism in India is rooted to its vast diversity in religion, culture, language and
tribes.
2). Geographical Concentration: Populations with different community identities are found in
majority in specific areas of India and the neglect of such regions in terms of development foments
regionalist sentiments.
Language coupled with the regional and tribal identity and not religion – has therefore provided the
most powerful instrument for the formation of ethno-national identity in India.
Redrawing of the boundaries of Indian States on the basis of linguistic considerations has been the
biggest contributing factor to the unification of this vast diverse land unlike Sri Lanka and Pakistan
which were divided due to their neglect of linguistic demands.
The Nation-state and religion related issues and identities
The most controversial of all aspects of cultural diversity are related to religious communities and
religion-based identities.
Such issues can be categorised into 2 heads,
 Secularism- communalism set: Questions of secularism and communalism are about the
state’s relationship to religion and to political groupings that invoke religion as their primary
identity.
 Minority-majority set: Questions about minorities and majorities involve decisions on how
the state is to treat different religious, ethnic or other communities that are unequal in
terms of numbers and/or power (including social, economic and political power.
Minority Rights and Nation-building
Indian nationalism has always been marked by inclusive nationalism and democratic vision.
Inclusive nationalism:
Inclusive nationalism recognises diversity and plurality. It doesn’t discriminate between minority and
majority. Instead of following an exclusionist agenda it follows an inclusive one wherein everyone is
equal despite of their race, religion, caste, creed, language or any other such identity markers.
So that the majority group doesn’t assume, that their culture, religion or language to be the nationstate, inclusive nationalism has been constitutionally embedded.
What is a minority in a sociological sense?
 The notion of minority groups is widely used in sociology and is more than a merely
numerical distinction – it usually involves some sense of relative disadvantage. Thus
whenever the word minority is referred to, the wealthier sections amongst it are excluded.
 The sociological sense of minority also implies that the members of the minority form a
collectivity – that is, they have a strong sense of group solidarity, a feeling of togetherness
and belonging. This is linked to disadvantage because the experience of being subjected to
prejudice and discrimination usually heightens feelings of intra-group loyalty and interests
Thus, statistical minorities like all people born on 29th February are not minorities in sociological
sense.
Why (even rich) religious minorities require protection?
There can be anomalous instances where a minority though well-off economically but is a minority
in other terms like a religious minority like Parsis or Sikhs.
Such minorities require protection because of the demographic dominance of the majority. They are
politically vulnerable and always under threat, meaning a dominant majority, after winning elections
can use state machinery against such minorities and might suppress their identity.
Thus, recognising the fact that unsatisfied and suppressed minorities can form a potentially
explosive situation for the entire nation, the makers of the constitution provided them with many
safeguards to protect their rights and their distinct identity from the majority and dominant groups.
Communalism, Secularism and Nation-state
What is communalism?
Meaning of word communal – something related to community as different from an individual. This
original meaning is neutral but when the word is used in South Asian context then it means
something else.
It means an aggressive political ideology linked to religion which considers others’ religion to be
inferior, illegitimate and opposed to one’s own.
The key point here is the attitude towards those holding beliefs in other kinds of identities, including
other religion-based identities.
One of the key claims of the communalism is its claim that religious identity overrides everything
else. Whether one is poor or rich, whatever one’s occupation, caste or political beliefs, it is religion
alone that counts. All Hindus are the same as are all Muslims, Sikhs and so on. This has the effect of
constructing large and diverse groups as singular and homogenous.
It rules out the possibility that Hindus living in Goa might have a lot in common with Sikhs living
there than the Hindus living in Kashmir.
A commonly cited justification of communal rioting is to avenge the deaths or dishonour suffered by
their co-religionists elsewhere or even in the distant past.
Indian history is plagued with many communal riots but at the same time Indian history provides
evidence of a tradition of religious pluralism, ranging from peaceful co-existence to actual intermixing or syncretism (fusion of different systems of belief). So it is upon us what we wish to learn
from it.
What is Secularism?
Western context:
It means the separation of church and state.
Indian context:
It implies equal respect to every religion like in India a public holiday is declared for every religion’s
major festivals.
In case of India, complications arise due to the Indian state’s simultaneous commitment to
secularism as well as the protection of minorities. The protection of minorities requires that they be
given special consideration in a context where the normal working of the political system places
them at a disadvantage vis-à-vis the majority community. But providing such protection immediately
invites the accusation of favouritism or ‘appeasement’ of minorities.
Opponents argue that secularism of this sort is only an excuse to favour the minorities in return for
their votes or other kinds of support. Supporters argue that without such special protection,
secularism can turn into an excuse for imposing the majority community’s values and norms on the
minorities.
State and Civil society
A state can turn in to an authoritarian state if state-structure i.e. the legislature, bureaucracy,
judiciary, armed forces, police and other arms of the state becomes insulated from the people. To
keep an eye on the state and to protest against its injustices or supplement its efforts Non-state
actors and institutions become important.
What is civil society?
 Civil society is the non-state and non-market part of the public domain in which individuals
get together voluntarily to create institutions and organisations.
 It is based on active citizenship where citizens pursue social issues. It consists of voluntary
associations, organisations or institutions formed by groups of citizens.
 It includes political parties, media institutions, trade unions, non-governmental
organisations (NGOs), religious organisations, and other kinds of collective entities.
What is the main criterion for inclusion in civil society?
The main criteria for inclusion in civil society are that,
 The organisation should not be state-controlled, and
 It should not be a purely commercial profit-making entity.
Example: Thus, Doordarshan is not part of civil society though private television channels are; a car
manufacturing company is not part of civil society but the trade unions to which its workers belong
are.
The most significant example of civil society action
The RTI agitation: Beginning with an agitation in rural Rajasthan for the release of information on
government funds spent on village development, this effort grew into a nation-wide campaign.
Despite the resistance of the bureaucracy, the government was forced to respond to the campaign
and pass a new law formally acknowledging the citizens’ right to information. Examples of this sort
illustrate the crucial importance of civil society in ensuring that the state is accountable to the nation
and its people.