• A relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior or knowledge due to experience.

 We learn by association
 Our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence
 Aristotle 2000 years ago
 John Locke and David Hume 200 years ago
 Associative Learning
 learning that two events occur together
 two stimuli
 a response and its consequences

• Conditioning :
– The acquisition of specific patterns of behavior in the presence of well-defined stimuli.
• Acquisition refers to the initial stage of
Learning something
• Classical Conditioning(C.C.) :
– a response naturally elicited by one stimulus comes to be elicited by a different, formerly neutral stimulus

 We learn to associate two stimuli

• Neutral stimulus :
– A stimulus that does not elicit a specific response.
• Conditioned stimulus (CS) :
– A neutral stimulus that acquires the ability to elicit a specific response
• Conditioned response (CR) :
– A response similar to the UR that is elicited by the CS.

• Unconditioned stimulus (US) :
– A stimulus that always elicits a specific response in the absence of any training.
• Unconditioned response (UR) :
– A response that is always elicited by a specific stimulus in the absence of any training .

 Ivan Pavlov
 1849-1936
 Russian physician/ neurophysiologist
 Nobel Prize in 1904
 studied digestive secretions
 First studies on associative learning

Classical
Conditioning
Operant
Conditioning
Changing
Directions in the Study of Conditioning
Observational
Learning

Classical
Conditioning
Operant
Conditioning
Changing
Directions in the Study of Conditioning
Observational
Learning

(NS)
Neutral Stimulus
Classical
Conditioning
Operant
Conditioning
Changing
Directions in the Study of Conditioning
Observational
Learning
(NR)
No Response

(UCS)
Unconditioned
Stimulus
Classical
Conditioning
Operant
Conditioning
Changing
Directions in the Study of Conditioning
Observational
Learning
(UCR)
Unconditioned
Response

Repeated pairings
(NS)
Neutral
Stimulus
(UCS)
Unconditioned
Stimulus
Classical
Conditioning
Operant
Conditioning
Changing
Directions in the Study of Conditioning
Observational
Learning
(NR)
No response

(CS)
Conditioned
Stimulus
Classical
Conditioning
Operant
Conditioning
Changing
Directions in the Study of Conditioning
Observational
Learning
(CR)
Conditioned
Response

• Nearly all automatic, involuntary responses (UR) can become a conditioned response:
– heartbeat, sweating , stomach secretion, blood pressure, brain waves etc.
• For conditioning to be effective, the conditioned stimulus should occur before the unconditioned stimulus , not after.
• the conditioned stimulus becomes a kind of signal for the unconditioned stimulus.

• The Office
http://www.spike.com/video-clips/0jnov0/theoffice-the-jim-trains-dwight

Classical
Conditioning
Operant
Conditioning
Changing
Directions in the Study of Conditioning
Observational
Learning
Video courtesy of David Johnson

• 1. Sara is watching a storm. A bolt of lightning is followed immediately by a huge crash of thunder and makes her jump. This happens several more times. The storm starts to move away and there is a gap between the lightening bolt and the sound of thunder, yet Sara jumps at the lightening bolt.
• What is the:
• UCS
• UCR
• CS
• CR

• Steve's mouth waters whenever he eats anything with lemon in. One day, while seeing an advertisement showing lemons, his mouth begins to water.
• What is the:
• UCS
• UCR
• CS
• CR

• Learning to like
• Evaluative Conditioning : changes in liking of a stimulus that result from pairing that stimulus with other positive or negative stimuli
• Learning to fear
• Accounting for Taste
• Reacting to Medical Treatment

UCS
(passionate kiss) UCR
(sexual arousal)
CS
(onion breath)
CS
(onion breath)
UCS
(passionate
Kiss)
UCR
(sexual arousal)
CR
(sexual arousal)

UCS
(drug)
UCR
(nausea)
CS
(waiting room)
UCS
(drug)
CS
(waiting room) CR
(nausea)
UCR
(nausea)

• Initial stage of classical conditioning with associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditional stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response.
– Ex. Flatworms

Classical
Conditioning
Operant
Conditioning
Changing
Directions in the Study of Conditioning
Observational
Learning
10
5
15
Acquisition
(CS-US pairings)
0

• Discrimination
• Generalization
• Extinction
• Spontaneous recovery


 in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli (even one similar to the CS) that do not signal a UCS
 Ex. Different types of dogs or snakes


 tendency for stimuli similar to CS to elicit similar responses
 the extension of the conditioned response from the original stimulus to similar stimuli.
 Ex. Children fear cars, truck, and other moving vehicles


 diminishing of a CR
 in classical conditioning, when a
UCS does not follow a CS
Cases of Resistance to
Extinction do occur

Classical
Conditioning
Operant
Conditioning
Changing
Directions in the Study of Conditioning
Observational
Learning
15
10
5
0
Extinction
(CS alone)

• Spontaneous recovery : the reappearance of the CR after a pause in extinction trials
• Renewal effect : if a response is extinguished in a different environment than where it was acquired, the extinguished response will reappear if the animal is returned to the original environment where acquisition took place

Classical
Conditioning
Operant
Conditioning
Changing
Directions in the Study of Conditioning
Observational
Learning
15
10
Spontaneous Recovery
(CS alone)
5
0

Strength of CR
Acquisition
(CS+UCS)
Extinction
(CS alone)
Spontaneous recovery of
CR
Extinction
(CS alone)
Pause

ALL HANDS ON DECK
• Think about the following scenarios and try to apply some of the aspects of classical conditioning:
• 1. How we acquire likes or dislikes for certain foods.
• 2. How classical conditioning may be used to treat conditions such as alcoholism.
• 3. How advertisers use classical conditioning.
• 4. How phobias and fears can be acquired.
• 5. How phobias and fears could be treated.


 The case of baby Albert
 Subject: 11 month old baby

• J. B. Watson classically conditions “Little
Albert” to fear white rats.
• Case study
• Identify the u.s., u.r., c.s., c.r.
• Discrimination and generalization

(CS)
White Rat
(US)
Loud Gong
(CR)
(UR)
Fear
Classical
Conditioning
Operant
Conditioning
Changing
Directions in the Study of Conditioning
Observational
Learning

Classical
Conditioning

• Mary Cover Jones reconditions “Peter” to not fear rabbits.
• This procedure evolved into desensitization therapy.
• The Case of Baby Peter
• Ucs, cs, ucr, cr

• Phobias:
– Irrational fears
• Conditioned food (taste) aversion:
– Classically conditioning a novel flavor to illness
– Biological predispositions serve as protective measures (Preparedness)
• Species-specific predispositions to be
Conditioned in certain ways and not others

• Martin Seligman has used the concept of preparedness to account for the fact that certain conditioned responses are acquired very easily.
• The ease with which we develop conditioned taste aversions illustrates preparedness.

• Animals are biologically prepared to learn conditioned taste aversions
• Taste aversions can occur with only one pairing of the taste of a tainted food and later illness.

• Taste aversion only requires one pairing of the NS with the US.
• Several hours can occur between the presentation of the NS and the US and the association between the two stimuli will occur.

Changing
Directions in the Study of Conditioning

• Behavior consistently rewarded will become learned behavior.
• Contemporary psychologists refer to this as the principle of reinforcement

• We learn to associate a response and its consequence
• Key to learning trained behavior that doesn’t begin naturally within an organism
– Ex. Pigeon flapping its wings or pecking for food

• The behavior is more likely or less likely to occur based on its consequences.
• B. F. Skinner modified Pavlov’s concept and
Thorndike’s law of effect.
• Skinner used reinforcement and punishment to enhance learning.

• Operant or instrumental conditioning is learning to make or withhold a certain response because of its consequences .
• Operant behaviors are different from the responses involved in classical conditioning
– They are voluntarily emitted
– Those involved in classical conditioning are elicited by stimuli.

• Shaping: procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior closer and closer approximations of a desired goal
– The organism is learning associations between its behavior and resulting events
– Ex.

• Reinforcer :
– An event or stimulus that makes the behavior it follows more likely to occur again.
– Best when not delayed but immediately following the behavior

• Primary reinforcers
• Secondary reinforcers
• Positive reinforcers
• Negative reinforcers

• Primary reinforcer :
– A reinforcer that is rewarding in itself, such as food, water, and sex.
• Secondary reinforcer :
– A reinforcer that acquires its reinforcing power through association with a primary reinforcer.
– Money: #1 secondary reinforcer

• Positive reinforcer :
– A pleasant event that follows an operant response and increases the likelihood that the response will recur.
• Negative reinforcer : strengthens a given response by removing an aversive stimuli.

• Punishment : Any event that decreases the likelihood that the behavior preceding it will occur again.

• The aim of punishment is to decrease the likelihood that an ongoing behavior will recur.
• Punishment must be swift, sufficient, and certain for it to be effective.

• Punishment is generally not as effective as the skillful application of reinforcement.
• Avoidance training is an alternative strategy to using punishment.
• Avoidance training :
– Learning a particular behavior to prevent the occurrence of something unpleasant.

• Slows down learning; punishing for errors
• May suppress good behavior too; why should I try at all
• Cat’s away syndrome
• I’m a bad person
• Only training method used only training method learned; cyclical effect
• Unfortunate effect on the punisher

Chamber containing a bar or a key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a reward
Animal makes a specific response that is recorded while the consequences of the response are systematically controlled.
Cumulative Recorder

Classical
Conditioning
Operant
Conditioning
Changing
Directions in the Study of Conditioning
Observational
Learning

Secondary reinforcer
Primary reinforcer
Secondary reinforcer punishment
Primary reinforcer

• Reinforcement increases the rate of responding.
• Punishment decreases the rate of responding.

• Interval: time/clock: 7am-12pm-6pm
• Ratio: amount: 1:1, 2:1, 3:1
• Schedules can be:
• Continuous :
– each response is reinforced and thus learned more quickly but not as long lasting
• Intermittent/partial :
– reinforcement does not follow every response but the behavior lasts longer

• Intermittent reinforcement
: stronger schedule
– Reinforcement which rewards are given for some correct responses but not for every one;
– This generates behavior that persists longer than behavior learned by continuous reinforcement and thus is more resistant to extinction (behavior no longer occurs).
• Partial reinforcement encourages learners to keep
"testing" for a reward.
• The type of partial reinforcemen t schedule also matters.

• A fixed-interval schedule :
– Reinforcement given for the first correct response after a fixed time period, tends to result in a flurry of responding right before a reward is due.
• A variable-interval schedule :
– Reinforces the first correct response after an unpredictable period of time, tends to result in a slow but steady pattern of responding as the learner keeps testing for the next payoff.

• A fixed-ratio schedule :
– behavior is rewarded after a fixed number of correct responses,
– so the result is usually a high rate of responding because faster responses yield quicker payoffs.

• A variable-ratio schedule :
– Provides reinforcement after a varying number of correct responses.
– Encourages a high rate of response that is especially persistent because the person keeps harboring the hope that the next response will bring a reward.

• Continuous reinforcement:
– Putting money in a parking meter to avoid a parking ticket
• Fixed-ratio schedule:
– Being paid for producing a specific number of items (as in a factory setting)

• Variable-ratio schedule:
– Playing a slot machine
• Fixed-interval schedule:
– Receiving a salary paycheck every two weeks
• Variable-interval schedule:
– Surprise quizzes

• Cognitive learning
• Learned Helplessness
• Latent learning
• Cognitive maps
• Insight
• Learning sets
• Social learning theory

• Failure to take steps to avoid or escape from an unpleasant or aversive stimulus that occurs as a result of previous exposure to unavoidable painful stimuli.

• Cognitive learning:
– Learning that depends on mental processes that are not directly observable
• Latent learning :
– Learning that is not immediately reflected in a behavioral change
– Occurs once there is incentive to demonstrate the behavior

• Extrinsic motivation : a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment
• Intrinsic motivation : a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective
– Bribing people to do this they already enjoy doing will reduce their level of intrinsic motivation….when this happens it is called the over-justfication effect

• Cognitive map :
– A learned mental image of a spatial environment that may be called on to solve problems when stimuli in the environment change.

• Insight:
– Learning that occurs rapidly as a result of understanding all the elements of a problem.

• The ability to become increasingly more effective in solving problems as more problems are solved.
– i.e., “learning how to learn”

• A view of learning that emphasizes the ability to learn by observing or witnessing/imitating a model or receiving instructions, without firsthand experience by the observer.
• Observational learning:
Albert Bandura

• Modeling : the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
– Ex. Little brother wearing his shorts like older brother
– Ex. Bandura’s research on aggression, Bobo Dolls http://www.schooltube.com/video/08b54cb04f82415daf
6/Bobo%20Doll%20Experiment
– Ex. Prosocial behavior: positive, constructive, an helpful behavior
• Mirror neurons: frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so.
– Has to do with learning language as well

Practice Test

1. After repeatedly pairing a tone with meat powder, Pavlov found that a dog will salivate when the tone is presented. Salvation to the tone is a(n)
A. Unconditioned stimulus
B. Unconditioned response
C. Conditioned stimulus
D. Conditioned response

2. Sam’s wife always wears the same black nightgown whenever she is “in the mood” for sexual reactions. Sam becomes sexually aroused as he sees his wife in the nightgown. For Sam, the nightgown is a(n)
A. unconditioned stimulus
B. unconditioned response
C. conditioned stimulus
D. conditioned response

3. Watson and Rayner (1920) conditioned “Little Albert” to fear white rats by banging a hammer on a steel bar as the child played with a white rat. Later, it was discovered that Albert eared not only white rats but white stuffed toys and Santa’s beard as well. Alberts fear of these other objects is attributed to:
A. Negative reinforcement
B. Stimulus generalization
C. Stimulus discrimination
D. An overactive imagination

4. The phenomenon of higher-order conditioning shows that:
A. Only genuine, natural US can be used to establish a CR
B. Auditory stimuli are easier to condition than visual stimuli
C. Visual stimuli are easier to condition than auditory stimuli
D. An already established CS can be used in the place o a natural US

5. Which of the following statements is (are) true?
A. Classical conditioning regulated reflexive, involuntary responses exclusively
B. Operant conditioning regulates voluntary responses exclusively
C. The distinction between the two types of conditioning is not absolute
D. Both A and B

6. A pigeon in a Skinner box is pecking the disk at a high, steady rate. The graph portraying this pigeon’s responding will have:
A. A steep, unchanging slope
B. A shallow, unchanging slope
C. A progressively steeper slope
D. A progressively shallower slope

7. A primary reinforcer has ______ reinforcing properties; a secondary reinforcer has _______ reinforcing properties.
A. biological; aquired
B. conditioned; unconditioned
C. weak; potent
D. immediate; delayed

8. The steady, rapid responding of a person playing a slot machine is an example of the pattern of responding typically generated on a _______ schedule.
A. Fixed-ratio
B. Variable-ratio
C. Fixed-interval
D. Variable-interval

9. Positive reinforcement _____ the rate of responding; negative reinforcement _____ the rate of responding.
A. Increases; decreases
B. Decreases; increases
C. Increases; increases
D. Decreases; decreases

10. Research on avoidance learning suggests that a fear response is acquired through _____ conditioning; the avoidance response is maintained as a result of _______ conditioning.
A. Classical; operant
B. Operant; classical
C. Classical; classical
D. Operant; operant

11. Nolan used to love tequila. However, a few weeks ago he drank way too much tequila and became very, very sick. His tendency to drink tequila has since declined dramatically. In operant terms, this sequence of events represents:
A. Generalization
B. Negative reinforcement
C. Higher-order conditioning
D. Punishment

12. According to Rescorla, the strength of a conditioned response depends on:
A. The number of trials in which the CS and US are paired
B. The number of trials in which the CS is presented alone
C. The percentage of trials in which the CS and
US are paired
D. Resistance to exstinction

13. The link between media violence and subsequent aggressive behavior may be explained by:
A. Observational learning
B. Noncontingent reinforcement
C. Resistance to extinction
D. Classical conditioning

14. The second step in a self-modification program is to:
A. Specify the target behavior
B. Design your program
C. Gather baseline data
D. Set up a behavioral contact

15. When advertisers pair their products with likable celebrities, pleasant music, and beautiful scenery, they are attempting to make their products:
A. Unconditioned stimuli
B. Conditioned stimuli
C. Conditioned responses
D. Primary reinforcers

Homework Test
1. In __________ reinforcement, the reinforcer follows every correct response.
a. intermittent b. partial c. negative d. continuous
2. In Pavlov's experiments with dogs, salivation was the a. conditioned response.
b. unconditioned stimulus.
c. conditioned stimulus.
d. unconditioned response.

3. The presentation of an aversive stimulus or the removal of a positive stimulus are both examples of a. negative reinforcement.
b. punishment.
c. positive reinforcement.
d. secondary reinforcement.
4. In classical conditioning, learning is evident when a a. stimulus automatically produces a response without a prior history of experience.
b. stimulus which did not initially produce a response now elicits that response.
c. spontaneously emitted response increases in frequency as a result of its consequences.
d. subject repeats an action he or she has observed in another and is praised for it.

5. In Thorndike's law of effect, events critical for conditioning a. occur after the response.
b. occur before the response.
c. occur simultaneously with the response.
d. are unrelated to the response except during extinction.
6. If you have a snake phobia because you once heard a loud noise while looking at a snake, for you a snake is a(n) a. US.
b. CS.
c. UR.
d. CR.

7. A series of responses that gradually approach a desired pattern of behavior are called a. adaptations.
b. gradients.
c. successive approximations.
d. conditioning trials.
8. If the conditioned stimulus is presented many times without reinforcement, we can expect a. an increase in stimulus generalization.
b. the strength of the UR to increase.
c. an increase in response generalization.
d. extinction to occur.

9. A child has learned to avoid a furry, black cat. However, she still plays with her grandmother's short-haired tabby.
Her response demonstrates a. negative transfer.
b. extinction.
c. discrimination.
d. successive approximation.
10. Punishment is most effective in suppressing behavior when it is a. immediate, consistent, and intense.
b. delayed, consistent, and mild.
c. immediate, consistent, and mild.
d. delayed, inconsistent, and intense.

• General requirements:
• 1. needs application of each concept
• 2. definitions alone do not score but can be used to support answer
• 3. Part A & B: applications of concept must relate to the similarities/differences context.
• 4. Part C: applications of concept must relate to the element of time context

• Score 5: has addressed all concepts and/or has 3 or less mistakes 90-100
• Score 4: has addressed all but 1 concept and/or has 4-6 mistakes 80-89
• Score 3: has addressed all but 2 concepts and /or has 7-
9 mistakes 70-79
• Score 2: has addressed all but 3 concepts and/or has
10-12 mistakes 60-69
• Score 1: has addressed all but 4 concepts and/or has
13-14 mistakes. 50-59
•
• Score 0: has addressed all but 5 concepts and/or has 15 or more mistakes 10-49

• A. Discuss three similarities that both learning models share by using specific examples or applications.
• B. Discuss three differences that can be found between the two learning models by providing specific examples or applications.

1. Conditioning
2. Stimulus and response relationships
3. Acquisition period
4. Principles of conditioning
5. Reinforcers
6. Schedules of reinforcement
7. Contingencies
8. High order conditioning
9. Passive –vs- Active
10. Punishment

 Similarities
 Associative Learning: learning that two events occur together
 two stimuli
 a response and its consequences
• Differences
• Classical (C.C.):
– a response naturally elicited by one stimulus comes to be elicited by a different, formerly neutral stimulus
– specific patterns between US and CS
• Operant (O.C.):
– behaviors are emitted (in the presence of specific stimuli) to earn rewards or avoid punishments
• specific patterns between behavioral response and the reinforcers/consequences that follow

• Similarity : both theories use a stimulus and response relationship
• Difference:
• S = R (pavlovian)
Bell = drooling
• R = S (R) (skinner/instrumental)
Operant r=r (response = reinforcement)
Late to class = A.E.

 Similarity: Both have an Acquisition period
 Difference:
 the initial stage in classical conditioning
 the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response
 in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response
 A pellet for every turn of the head

• Similarity : both have principles of generalization, discrimination, extinction and spontaneous recovery
• Differences :
• Response Generalization
• Classical
– Stimuli similar to CS will elicit CR
• Operant
– Supplying different responses to stimulus

Stimulus Discrimination
• Classical
– CR is specific to a certain CS-US pairing
– Reaction to sirens, school bell tones
• Operant
– Reinforcing only specific responses
– Pushing lever only if green light appears

• Extinction
• Classical
– Occurs when CS-US pairing lapses
• Operant
– Occurs when reinforcing is withheld
• spontaneous recovery
• CC: occurs when cs and ucs are paired again
• OC: occurs when reinforcement is reapplied to response.

• Although Classical conditioning does not provide incentives or reinforcers, there is similarity .
• value in itself: primary Reinforcer (oc) and
Unconditional stimulus (cc)
• Secondary reinforcers: means to an end (oc) and Conditional stimulus: signal (cc)
• Positive reinforcers: pleasurable stimuli (oc) unconditional stimulus (cc)
• Negative reinforcers: unpleasurable stimuli that strengthens desired response (oc) unconditional stimulus (cc)

Reinforcers cont.
• Difference:
• In operant conditioning reinforcers act as incentives for learning.
• Classical conditioning, on the other hand, does not provide incentives. Associations are made or they are not.

• Similarities : none
• Differences: occur within operant conditioning only
• Two types of schedules
• Interval: time between reinforcements /clock: 7am-12pm-6pm
• Ratio: amount of responses required to get a reinforcement: 1:1, 2:1,
3:1
• Schedules can be:
• Fixed:
– each response is reinforced
– Time schedule is same
• Variable:
– reinforcement does not follow every response
– Time schedule changes

• Similarities
• In both classical and operant conditioning, an "if-then" relationship or contingency exists.
• Differences
• The contingency can be either between two stimuli (classical) or between a stimulus (reinforcement) and a response
(operant).

• Similarities: none; no punishment in cc
• Differences: occur within oc alone
• Punishment is different than neg. reinforcement because neg. reinf.
Strengthens a response while punishment decreases the likelihood that the behavior preceding it will occur again. Electric shock, failing grade, isolation

• Similarity
• Both have high order conditioning based on previous learning
• Difference
• Classical: an earlier CS becomes the US for further learning
• Operant conditioning secondary reinforcer can become a primary reinforcer
• classical
• S=R=S baby hunger pains= crying= mom brings food
• Baby is bored cries (former UR)= Mom’s attention
• Operant
•
• r to sr = pr ring is secondary reinforcer to marriage ring size becomes primary to marriage (secondary) to get the ring
• I need money to buy food (sr)
• I want to be rich (pr)

• Similarities : none
• Differences :
• Classical conditioning is passive on the part of the learner S=R
• Operant conditioning relies on the learner to actively participate in the learning process. R=S

• Part C:
• Discuss five reasons to support that
Operant and Classical Conditioning are affected by the element of time

1.
Conditioning: associations must be paired close enough in space and time to make the connection
2.
stimulus response relationships. Timing; classical cond. Cs precedes us for best results, OC; response precedes stimulus (reinforcer)
3.
Acquisition: the period of time necessary to make an association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus; food aversion 1 time phenomenon other cs take more time.
4.
extinction: over time learned responses sometimes weaken and may even disappear, lose meaning,
5.
spontaneous recovery; 1 time would generate immediate response, or response may come back on it’s own after a period of time with no re-pairing of the stimuli.
6.
variable time schedules seem to generate behavior that persists longer over time
7.
A fixed-ratio schedule can create a high rate of responding because faster responses yield quicker payoffs.

8. variable-interval schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable period of time tends to result in a slow but steady pattern of responding as the learner keeps testing for the next payoff.
9. fixed-interval schedule:Reinforcement given for a response after a fixed time period tends to result in a flurry of responding right before a reward is due.
10. High order learning results over time based on previous learning
11. Punishment can slow down learning