GENERAL
PSYCHOLOGY
Lecture 9
MOTIVATION
Visiting Assistant PROFESSOR YEE-SAN TEOH
Department of Psychology
National Taiwan University
1
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MOTIVATION
The Urge to Reduce the Drive
Drive
State of internal
bodily tension
Behaviors
Serve to
reduce drive
Equilibrium
Drive reduction
is achieved
Equilibrium


i.
ii.

Homeostasis: body self regulates to maintain the
conditions of its internal environment.
Maintenance of our internal equilibrium:
Internal adjustments of the body
Diverse sets of behaviors (e.g. eating when you’re low
on calories)
Examples of ‘drive’: Hunger, thirst, or the need for sleep.
THREAT & AGGRESSION
AN EXAMPLE
Intense Threat


Motive depends primarily on external triggers, such as a
lion about to pounce.
Genetic mechanisms play a role, but are also heavily
shaped by our environment and our experiences.
Physiological Aspects of Threat & Aggression
Mechanisms underlying our reactions to threat
a.
b.
Sympathetic branch of the ANS – summons body’s
resources in times of crisis, readies organism for
vigorous action
Adrenal medulla – stimulation induces release of
epinephrine (adrenaline) & norepinephrine into the
bloodstream – accelerates heart rate, speeds up
metabolism, amplifies sympathetic effects even further.
The “Fight or Flight” Response (Cannon)




Intense sympathetic arousal - emergency reaction to
prepare for crisis.
Allows more nutrient fuel to be available to the muscles
and can be delivered rapidly through wide bloody vessels.
At the same time, waste products are jettisoned & all less
essential bodily activities are brought to a halt.
Survival purposes.
Problems with F/F Formulation

Organisms respond to threat in many different ways –
some animals stand immobile so that predators are less
likely to notice them and some animals change colors (i.e.
neither fight / flight)
Problems with F/F Formulation

Organism’s responses vary by gender – females seem to
respond to stressful situations by “tending” (taking care of
children) and “befriending” (using social support).

Arousal of the sympathetic branch of the ANS can also be
disruptive & damaging (e.g. chronic stressors such as
traffic jams)
Threat as a Motivator of Aggression
Organisms engage in 2 forms of violence
Aggression




Aggressive or self-defense
behaviors are controlled
by different brain areas.
Triggered by different
situations.
Show different behavioral
profiles.
Motivated by threat.
Predation



Predatory attack (hunting
& killing for food) is
motivated by hunger.
Controlled by same brain
sites as eating.
No signs of anger – never
growl before attacking
prey.
Male Aggression & Hormones



Among vertebrates, the male is by far the more physically
aggressive sex (as adults, male murderers outnumber
females by a ratio of 10:1).
Gender difference only holds for physical aggression.
Human females are also aggressive, but their aggression
tends to rely on verbal or social assaults, not physical
violence.
Why is Physical Aggression So Much more
Prevalent in Men?

High testosterone levels are associated with increased
physical aggressiveness in many different species, but not
for all situations/contexts.

Some human aggression bears no relationship to
testosterone levels, so must be due to other factors.

High testosterone levels can be both a cause & effect of
aggressive behavior, so it is inaccurate to say that
testosterone causes aggression in all species.
Cognitive Aspects of Threat & Aggression
Sources of Aggression
a)
b)
Securing resources or maintaining a hold on what they
think is theirs
Symbolic concerns, such as insults to honor or
objections to another person’s beliefs or behavior
Individual Differences in Aggression
High Self-Esteem
 Social provocations are more likely to inspire aggression if
the person provoked has unrealistically high self-esteem.
 The person is particularly likely to perceive the
provocation as a grievous assault, challenging his inflated
self-image, which often results in violence.
Individual Differences in Aggression
Aggressiveness
(a)
(b)
Some people just seem aggressive in general, whether
or not they are provoked.
Other people tend to feel (and display) a lot of anger,
but it seems to translate into aggression only when they
are provoked.
Individual Differences in Aggression
Sensation seeking




Tendency to seek out varied & novel experiences in their
daily lives.
Look for thrills & adventure.
Highly susceptible to boredom.
High levels of sensation seeking are associated with
aggressiveness.
Individual Differences in Aggression
Impulsivity
 Tendency to act without reflecting on one’s actions.
 High scores on tests of impulsivity are associated with
aggressiveness.
Culture Aspects of Threat & Aggression

-
Some cultures are more violent than others
Result is best attributed to social differences, not
population density, economic conditions, or climate.
How does culture encourage or discourage
aggression?
1.
2.
3.
Explicit teaching – parents tell us not to be
aggressive and punish aggressive acts.
Subtle cues – pick up on subtle cues that tell us
whether people think that aggression is acceptable or
unacceptable.
Observational learning – people around us model
through their own actions how one should handle
situations that might provoke aggression.
Example: Media Violence




Investigators estimate that the average American child
observes more than 10,000 acts of TV violence every
year.
Studies consistently show that assault & homicide rates
increase after exposure to media violence.
Studies also indicate that children who are not
particularly aggressive become more so after viewing TV
violence.
However…it’s possible that those who view violence are
violent themselves.
Is Aggression Inevitable?

Natural selection- limits damage caused by aggression ensures that animals aresensitive to the strength of their
enemies.

If the enemy seems much stronger than oneself, the best
bet is to concede defeat quickly or never start the battle
at all.
Motive Beyond Drives
Other Than Internal Tension
Positive Goals
We can also be motivated by positive goals – things that
we seek and enjoy, like watching a sunrise or going to a
concert.
 Two major motives that govern our daily activities:
a) Motive to belong to groups
b) Motive to achieve

Motive to Belong

i)
ii)
Motives to belong include
Avoidance orientation – We do not want to be alone
or rejected, so we take steps to avoid these
experiences.
Approach orientation – We seek out the many benefits
of being with others, including the positive emotion
experienced in social interactions.
Benefits of Social Contact
Tangible Support


Practical help from many
different people.
Incl getting help
proofreading an
assignment.
Emotional Support



Emotional help we get
from others.
Direct – friend consoles
us.
Indirect – emotional
connections we have to
others.
The Motive to Achieve
a.
b.

Fear of failure (avoidance orientation) – Don’t seek out
challenges.
Desire for success (approach orientation) – Seek out
challenges and excel when the going gets tough.
Achievement motivation is a powerful predictor of school
performance.
Factors of motives to achieve?
Parenting Style
i.
ii.
Some evidence that caregivers who punish failure &
take success for granted can instill a fear of failure.
Rewarding achievement but not punishing failure can
promote a more positive desire for success.
Cognitive Factors
Mastery Orientation


Focus on learning &
improving.
In face of adversity, likely
to increase effort & seek
out ways of benefiting
from the experience.
Performance Orientation


Focus on performing well
& looking smart or
avoiding failure and not
looking inept.
In face of adversity or
negative feedback, likely to
withdraw effort & shift
focus elsewhere.
Maslow & the Hierarchy of Needs
Self
Actualization
Esteem Needs
Safety Needs
Physiological Needs
Emotional Development (ED)
Emotions Serve Interpersonal Functions

I.
II.
Expressions of emotion can
Indicate social intent – when we smile we indicate that
we are open to interacting with other people.
Facilitate group functioning – when we show
embarrassment, we indicate to others that we know we
have made a mistake.
Perspectives on
Emotional Development
1.
The Genetic-Maturational Perspective

Emotions are products of biological factors.
Temperament determines intensity of children’s
reactions to emotionally arousing situations and how
well they regulate their reactions.
A certain amount of physical maturation & social
stimulation must occur before baby starts to smile.
Most full-term babies begin to smile at about 6 wks ;
premature babies born at 36 wks smile at about 12 wks.



2.The Learning Perspective (Conditioning, Imitation)




Explains individual differences in emotional expression –
different onsets, frequencies, intensities.
Frequency with which children smile & laugh is influenced
by the environment in which they were raised (Denham et al.,
2007).
Parents can influence ED by dismissing children’s
emotional expressions & experiences (Gottman et al., 1996).
Fears can be learnt via operant conditioning, imitation.
3.The Functionalist Perspective (Saarni et al., 2006)





Emotions help us achieve our goals.
E.g. Fear leads us to flee a scary situation, enabling us to
achieve the goal of self-preservation.
Information provided by others’ emotional signals guide
behavior.
E.g. Positive feedback from potential friend encourages us
to continue developing the friendship.
Memories of past shape future responses to similar
situation.
Development of Primary Emotions
Positive and Negative Emotions
Positive Primary Emotions: Smiling & Laughter


In first few wks of life, babies show reflex or simple
smiles, usually spontaneous and depend on infant’s
internal states.
Between 3-8 wks, infants begin to smile to wide range of
external solicitors, incl social stimuli (Sroufe, 1996), especially
human faces, voices.


By about 3mos, babies start to smile more selectively at
familiar faces (Saarni et al., 2006).
Babies also display genuine smiles more in interacting
with caregivers than when smiling alone (Messinger et al.,
2001).
Individual differences in smiling


Some individual differences relate to social responsiveness
of baby’s environment.
Gender: newborn and teenage girls smile more than their
male counterparts (Korner, 1974; La France et al., 2003).


Nationality/ethnicity: Children & adults in U.S. & Canada
show larger gender differences in smiling than those in
U.K. (La France et al., 2003).
African American girls and boys show smaller differences
in smiling behavior – parents treat boys & girls more
similarly than European American parents do.
Negative Primary Emotions:
Fear, Anger, Sadness


At same time positive emotions develop, babies learn to
be fearful of some events and people, especially unfamiliar
ones (La Freniere, 2000)
Fear of strangers (Sroufe, 1996): wariness at 3mos, fear at 78mos.


Stranger distress not universal – in cultures that
emphasize shared caregiving, babies show little stranger
fear (Tronick et al., 1992).
Variations in fear of stranger depends on who stranger is,
how he/she behaves, setting in which strange is
encountered, child’s age (Saarni et al., 2006).
Social referencing (Saarni et al., 2006)


Definition: process of ‘reading’ emotional cues in others
to help determine how to act in an uncertain situation.
Infants learn to use others’ emotional expressions as a
guide to their own actions – emotion regulates social
behavior.
Anger

Although few 1-month-olds show anger expressions
when their arms are gently restrained, by 4-7mos, around
56% of babies show clear anger at this restriction
(Sternberg & Campos, 1989).

Infants usually display anger in response to particular
external events, e.g. withdrawal of teething biscuit
(Sternberg et al., 1983), inoculation (IZard et al, 1987).
Individual Differences in Emotions



-
Babies who are more sociable show less stranger
wariness than less sociable infants (Bohlin & Hagekull, 1993).
Kagan (1998) identified subset of children as “behaviorally
inhibited” – shy, fearful, introverted, avoid peers, more
anxious and upset by mild stressors than other children.
Individual differences in emotionality related to children’s
adjustment (Lengua, 2002):
Emotionally positive – high self-esteem, social
competence, better adjustment.
Emotionally negative – depressed, conduct problems.
Recognizing Emotions in Others



In mother-infant face-to-face interactions – babies
recognize positive emotions more frequently than
negative emotions (Izard et al., 1995).
Nature of early experience, interactions between parents
and infants predict ability to recognize emotions.
Recognition and production of emotions are related .
Emotion Regulation



The ability to control, diminish, or change one’s own
feelings.
Can mean influencing which emotions we have, when we
have them, and how we experience or express them.
Most common forms – efforts to decrease the
experience or behavior assoc with anxiety, sadness, and
anger.
Two Strategies of Emotion Regulation
A. Cognitive reappraisal
-
-
Individual changes her emotional response to the
situation by altering her appraisal of the situation.
Changing the meaning a situation has.
E.g. Instead of viewing a job interview as a matter of life
and death, think about it as a chance to learn more about
the company.
Little cognitive or physiological costs – makes one feel
better.
B. Suppression
-
-
Attempts to decrease the emotion he shows on his face
or in his behavior.
E.g. Instead of bursting into tears upon receiving
disappointing news, a person might bite his lip and put on
a brave face.
Leads to even greater sympathetic nervous system
activation and maladaptive cognitive effects.
Emotion Regulation in Babies



Methods of emotional control include looking away,
covering faces, distraction via play.
Infancy – intense and unregulated emotional expressions,
By preschool years – expressions are less frequent, less
distinct, less intense, less variable. (La Freniere, 2000).



Emotion regulation abilities – important predictors of
later adjustment (Fox & Calkins, 2003).
E.g. Better anger regulation = less aggressive & disruptive
in kindergarten (Gillion et al., 2002).
Gradual learning of emotional display rules – what
emotions to show under what circumstances.
Culture and Emotional Behavior
Cultural values shape how children:
a) Appraise situations
b) Communicate emotions
c) Act on feelings


-
-
Cole et al. (2002) – comparison of U.S and Nepali
children:
U.S. value of self-assertion – endorsement of expression
of anger.
Nepali value of interpersonal harmony – acceptance of
difficult situation.
Children’s Thinking About Emotions
Children eventually learn how to match emotions to
situations by developing emotional scripts.
 3-4-year-old children can identify situations that would
lead to –
(i) Happiness, sadness or anger (Borke, 1971)
(ii) Excitement, surprise, fear (Levine, 1995)

Emotional scripts become more complex with age –
older children can match situations to secondary
emotions (e.g. jealousy, pride).

Cultural differences in emotions to same situation – e.g.
disruption of play for nap.

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National Taiwan University
YEE-SAN TEOH
National Taiwan University
YEE-SAN TEOH