Chapter 2: Learning
There are several types of LEARNING like:
Observational Learning, Operant Conditioning & Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning –
Conditioned means LEARNED
*Accidently discovered by Ivan Pavlov and his famous experiment with dogs
*A learning procedure where a natural stimulus-response relationship
is attached to a new stimulus
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Example:
natural stimulus-response= ”Unconditioned”
food presented
= dog salivates
Unconditioned Stimulus
Unconditioned Response
Classical Conditioning happens when a NEUTRAL stimulus gets attached
to the existing natural stimulus response relationship
Example:
neutral stimulus – the tone of the bell
Bell (NS)+ food(UCS) = dog drools(UCR)
Repeat pairing = Result =learning or CONDITIONING takes place (Acquisition)
Dog salivate when hear bell (with no food)
Bell (CS-Conditioned Stimulus) = dog drooling (CR-Conditioned response)
Acquisition - the first stages of learning when a response is established
When the once neutral stimulus evokes the “conditioned” response
& the once neutral stimulus becomes now the “conditioned” stimulus
This NEW learned response is called classical conditioning
UCS= Unconditioned stimulus (natural): An event that elicits a certain
predictable response without previous training (presence of food)
UCR= Unconditioned response (natural):
A reaction that occurs naturally and automatically when the unconditioned
stimulus is presented (salivate)
CS= Conditioned Stimulus (learned)
once-neutral stimulus (tone of bell) that has come to elicit a given response
after a period of training in which it has been paired with an unconditioned
stimulus (UCS)
CR= Conditioned Response(learned)
learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus (salivating with bell &
no food present)
*Increased pairing of NS and UCS = acquisition happens which is
classical conditioning*
GOLDEN RULES TO CLASSICAL CONDITIONING:
1.
The UCR & the CR are ALWAYS the SAME!
2.
NS always becomes the CS!
Let’s break it down:
Lets try some together!
1. You are taking a shower. Your sister flushes the toilet.
The water turns scalding hot and you jump back. Now
when you take a shower and you hear the toilet flush you
automatically jump.
(UCS)__________= __________(UCR)
(NS)_______+ (UCS)__________=___________(UCR)
Acquisition takes place after multiple pairings
(CS)___________=___________(CR)
2. You go to your doctor’s office to receive weekly injections for a
medical condition. The injection’s side effects include a
warming sensation and dizziness. Now when you wait in any
small doctor office like space you feel warm and dizzy.
(UCS)__________= __________(UCR)
(NS)_______+ (UCS)__________=___________(UCR)
Acquisition takes place after multiple pairings
(CS)___________=___________(CR)
3. You were driving to your friend’s house and were stopped by
police for speeding. Once you saw the lights of the police car
your heart started racing. Months later when you drive to
your friend’s, at the appropriate speed limit, on the same
stretch of the road where you were pulled over your heart
races.
(UCS)__________= __________(UCR)
(NS)_______+ (UCS)__________=___________(UCR)
Acquisition takes place after multiple pairings
(CS)___________=___________(CR)
Related Classical Conditioning Terms:
Extinction: The gradual disappearance of a conditioned response because
the reinforcement is withheld or because the conditioned stimulus is
repeatedly presented without the UCS (unconditioned stimulus)
Think about Baby Albert: if Watson would have removed the fear of white fuzzy
things by showing baby fuzzy things repeatedly with no loud scary noise, baby’s
fear would have decreased and eventually become extinct
Spontaneous Recovery –
the reappearance of the conditioned response after a rest period
While the response might disappear, that does not mean
that it has been forgotten or eliminated.
Generalization: Responding similarly to a range of similar stimuli,
think of little Albert & his fear of all white fuzzy things
Discrimination: The ability to respond differently to similar but distinct
stimuli, example being afraid of only white fuzzy items not all fuzzy items
Taste Aversions-
linking your distaste for particular items to a period of illness,
queasiness or nausea
The previously neutral stimulus (the food) is paired with an unconditioned
stimulus (an illness), which leads to an unconditioned response (feeling sick).
After this one-time pairing, the previously neutral stimulus (the food) is
now a conditioned stimulus that elicits a conditioned response (avoiding the
food).
Read pages 117 & 118 from the AP Review Book
& define all bold vocab
Operant Conditioning A form of learning in which a certain action is reinforced or punished, resulting in increases or decreases in the likelihood that action
happening again = TRAINING
* study of how behavior is affected by its consequences
Edward Thorndike(1898) started operant research
Originally called “Instrumental Conditioning”
- a behavior becomes more or less pronounced depending on its consequences
- Research with cat and a puzzle box http://www.simplypsychology.org/edward-thorndike.html
Law of Effect- any behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and any behavior followed by unpleasant consequences
is likely to be stopped
B.F. Skinner
Skinner Box Experiments
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I_ctJqjlrHA
Operant Conditioning Training Procedures
4 Methods to choose from
1.
Positive Reinforcement + something added or given
Rewards given to increase frequency of behavior
Types of Reinforcers:
Primary Reinforcer occur naturally (“primary to my survival” is my mnemonic device)
Examples of primary reinforcers include things that satisfy basic survival needs such as water, food, sleep, air
Secondary Reinforcer
Something that is learned to be rewarding, like gold stars or the behavior color codes system used in elementary schools
Token Economy
Secondary reinforcers are used to reward desirable behaviors, Positive Attitude Awards are a great example –they hold no value in any other situation
Used successfully in prisons and day care programs
Generalized Reinforcer
Money because it can be used to get anything, it can be “generalized”
2.
Negative Reinforcement - subtract something
Removal of something one dislikes, an
aversive/punishment, increases frequency of behavior repeating
*Parent removes your curfew (you don’t like), when you bring home all A’s, to INCREASE the likelihood you get all A’s in future
*Take an aspirin to remove a headache
There are 2 types:
A. Escape – take away aversive stimuli after it already started
B. Avoidance – your behavior takes away the opportunity for the aversive stimuli to ever begin
Let’s Practice together & add a few to your notes
*Put on seatbelt before start car to prevent annoying ding sound
*Before heading out for a day at the beach, you slather on sunscreen so you don’t get sunburned
*Putting on gloves to remove chill from hands, more likely to put on gloves before you even head outside next time
* You decide to clean up your mess in the kitchen so Mom doesn’t yell at you about it
* Mom starts yelling at you about your messy room, so you go clean it to stop the nagging
3. Punishment Aversive consequence follows behavior, used to decrease undesirable behavior
Example: Spray your cat (or kid) with a water bottle
4. Omission Training –
Removal of something of value to decrease the likelihood of the behavior repeating
Example: All time-outs = removal of something good or fun
IF YOU ARE USING REINFORCEMENTS – How often will you give them?
Schedule of Reinforcements: Timing and frequency of reinforcement are important:
1.
Continuous Schedule:
Reward every desired behavior, learning happens quick but so will extinction
2.
Partial Schedule (Intermittent):
Responses are more stable and last longer
4 Types of Partial Schedule Reinforcements:
RATIO = NUMBER
INTERVALS = TIME
See handout
Fixed-ratio schedule: A schedule of reinforcement in which a specific number of correct responses is required before reinforcement can be obtained
Ex: Rewarding every 4th response
Variable-ratio schedule: A schedule of reinforcement in which an ever changing number of responses are required before reinforcement can be obtained each time
EX: Slot machines, set to pay off after a varying number of attempts and you never know if it will be the next pull or not will be the reward
Fixed-interval schedule: A schedule of reinforcement in which a specific amount of time must elapse before a response will elicit reinforcement
Ex. Teacher gives a quiz every Monday
Variable-interval schedule: A schedule of reinforcement in which changing amount of time must elapse before a response will obtain reinforcement each time
Ex: Trying to reach a friend and goes straight to voicemail. Keep trying at random lengths of time you are not sure how long you have to wait to get ahold of them
Begin NOW
Fill out the Graphic Organizer
Practice Schedules of reinforcement on WKST 1-22
More CLASSICAL CONDITIONING terms to learn:
Delayed Conditioning–
* Ideal training*
NS precedes UCS; briefly overlap
Example w/ Pavlov’s dogs: ______________________________________________________________________________________________________
Simultaneous Conditioning –
NS and UCS paired together at the same time
Example w/ Pavlov’s dogs: ______________________________________________________________________________________________________
Trace Conditioning–
NS presented first, removed, then the UCS is presented
Example w/ Pavlov’s dogs: ______________________________________________________________________________________________________
Backwards Conditioning–
UCS presented first and the NS follows
Example w/ Pavlov’s dogs: ______________________________________________________________________________________________________
Dueling Theories on What leads to Conditioning:
Contiguity - (Webster’s Definition - the state of being in indirect contact with)
Pavlov – behavioral perspective
Proximity important to learning occurring
Stimuli that are close to one another in time and space become associated
VERSES
Contingency –
Richard Rescorla –cognitivist perspective
When one stimulus depends on the other, they become associated (correlation)
More OPERANT CONDITIONING terms to learn:
Instinctive Drift – animals lose their conditioned behavior to instead perform more organism specific behavior
See handout
example:_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Preparedness – predisposition to easily learn behaviors related to survival of the species
example: Teaching a chicken to peck at a specific colored disk, card or object
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2F5kLv6ErOA
Premack principle – Parents’ favorite weapon!!!
David Premack states that a commonly occurring action (watching TV) can be used effectively as a reinforcer for a less commonly occurring one
(cleaning your room).
example: __IF YOU R CLEAN YOUR ROOM, YOU CAN WATCH TV
an activity that probably does not require reinforcement, is used as a reinforcer for cleaning the room,
Behavioral modification – using conditioning principles to alter behavior, see examples on website
http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/behavior/behmod.html
This is just one of the many ways to develop a new behavior via conditioning
1. Successive Approximation Principle:
To teach a child to act in a manner in which he has seldom or never before behaved, reward successive steps to the final behavior.
Latent Learning – Edward Tolman
Rats in mazes
We make cognitive maps, and we aren’t aware we have them, until we need to rely on them. Like getting around your house in the dark.
Insight – Wolfgang Kohler
Peanut in the tube puzzle
Kohler’s chimps solving puzzles
Learned helplessness – Martin Seligman
One of several explanations for depression
Constantly facing failures, causes one to stop trying!
This person develops an external locus of control- no matter what they do, crap happens to them – they have no control over the
situation
Experiment – Dogs were shocked
Escalator video
Learned laziness - Martin Seligman
The person was handed everything, they never learned to work for things. They literally learn to be “lazy”.
Happens with bright students, up until junior year they never had to study and easily got great grades. But as a junior the curriculum
is more challenging. They have no idea how to study and are frustrated by the idea that they will have to work for a grade.
Shaping vs. Chaining –
Chaining = requires one to complete a sequence or series of tasks before a reinforcement is given (like links in a chain are bound together)
Read your kids a book (reinforcement) after they complete all: use the restroom, take a bath, put on PJs, brush their teeth
Shaping = you reinforce desired behaviors at incremental steps / Skinner training his pigeon to do a 360 turn
Define the following terms
Chapter 2: Learning
Shaping
Chaining
Feedback
Transfer
Learned Helplessness
Learned Laziness
Behavior Modification
Response Chains
Avoidance
Escape
Observational Learning
Modeling
Disinhibition