Chapter 22
Political Upheavals and Social Transformations
(1815-1850)
Timeline
(Julia)
1815
End of Congress of Vienna
1819
Peterloo Massacre
1823
Restoration of Bourbon monarchy in Spain
1830
Creation of the July Monarchy in France
1832
Britain’s Great Reform Bill
1848
Frankfurt Parliament
Vocabulary
(Emma) You have to take these definitions a step further. Ask yourself what the significance of
each is – why they fit into this chapter.
Potato famine- the destruction of the potato crop in Ireland caused by an American fungus; the
famine and its results killed one million Irish and another million emigrated (Why is this
important?)
Viscount Castlereagh- British foreign secretary who was the British representative during the
Congress of Vienna. Why is he important? What does he represent?
Frederick William III- the Prussian King from 1797-1840 who, during the Congress of Vienna,
regained half of Poland and other German territories, but was unable to annex Saxony
Holy Alliance- Prussia, Austria, and Russia, under the leadership of Alexander I, agreed to
protect the peace and the Christian religion following the Congress of Vienna
Liberalism- a political philosophy based on freedom of the individual and the corruptibility of
authority; associated with constitutional reform in the first half of the nineteenth century.
Nationalism- the political doctrine that glorified the people united against the absolutism and the
tyranny of foreign oppressors. Inadequate – see opening sentence on pp.665
(Spencer)
Romanticism- an artistic and literary tradition based on emotions rather than the intellect;
rejection of classical traditions in favor of “nature”; often associated with nationalism. See above
suggestion.
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe- German writer, pictorial artist, biologist, theoretical physicist, and
polymath who is considered the supreme genius of modern German literature, and whose works
span the fields of poetry, drama, prose, philosophy, and science. His tragic play Faust has been
called the greatest long poem of modern European literature. He was also one of the key figures
of German literature and the movement of Weimar Classicism. Where does he fit in the
ideologies discussed in this chapter?
Socialism- an economic and political system characterized by social ownership of the means of
production and cooperative management of the economy. Socialism is also based on cooperative social relations and self-management, relatively equal power-relations, and the
reduction or elimination of hierarchy in the management of economic and political affairs.
Socialists rejected the world as it was (Why?) and grew out of the changes in the structure of
daily life and the structure of power. Socialists as a group shared a concern with “alienation.”
Charles Fourier- French socialist who formulated one of the most trenchant criticisms of
industrial capitalism, a utopian theory in which people would live in units called phalanxes,
which were rural and communally organized, would take into account all of the needs of its
members. Although neither poverty nor property would be eliminated, he felt that education
would help to alleviate discord as rich and poor would learn to live together in perfect harmony.
July Monarchy- when, in the last days of July 1830, workers took to the streets of Paris to protest
the acts of Charles X, then king of France (who had attempted to return French royal power to
what it was before the Revolution, and also did not act as a constitutional monarch), ousted
Charles X, and put his cousin, Louis-Philippe, formerly the duc d’Orléans, on the throne. The
July monarchy, born of a revolution, put an end to the Bourbon Restoration. So what did LouisPhilippe represent? How did he stand as an alternative to Charles X? Who benefitted?
Rotten boroughs- areas that continued to enjoy representation greater than that justified by their
population were called “rotten” or “pocket” boroughs to indicate a corrupt and antiquated
electoral system. The population of these areas had been steadily decreasing, as the migration of
citizens to cities remained steady. Connection: Where does “enclosure” fit?
(Robert)
Proletariat- Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx used this term to describe "the class of modern
wage-laborers who, having no means of production of their own, must sell their labor power in
order to live." Recently, it has been used to simply describe the working class of a country
Louis Blanc- French politician and historian who called for cooperatives in order to guarantee
employment for the urban poor. He wrote the Histoire de la Revolution Française (History of the
French Revolution) and served in France in the National Assembly. He opposed the reign of the
Second Empire, calling it "the empire without the emperor." At the time, it might have been a
historical to call him a “communist” (although in the Communist Manifesto of 1848, M & E did
say that “a specter is haunting Europe – the specter of Communism.” but he is certainly regarded
as such in hindsight. Certainly, the Soviets embraced him as “objectively progressive.”
Louis Cavaignac- French general during the Second Empire, he was later elected to the National
Assembly. He was voted full powers by the Assembly during the June Uprising (in effect,
making him dictator) and led troops against Paris. When he had put down the insurrections, he
gave up his dictatorial powers and, after an election loss to Louis Napoleon and the coup d'état of
December 2, 1851, he retired with his newly-married wife (awkward – He and his new wife…)
to the countryside.
Irish Great Hunger- 1840s famine caused by a virus (fungus) that affected the potato crop in
Ireland, rendering entire harvests unusable. Also known as the Potato Famine, it caused the
deaths of about 1 million people, and affected large parts of Europe, though it most drastically
affected the Irish countryside.
Congress of Vienna- 1814 meeting in which representatives of the victorious Allies attempted to
"mop up the mess" created in Europe by French Napoleonic rule by restoring earlier European
monarchies. It was a landmark meeting that set the stage for modern European history, namely,
the border issues that led to World War I. (You need a quick summary here of it major
provisions. What made it a landmark document?)
Alexander I- Emperor of Russia from 23 March 1801 to 1 December 1825 and the first Russian
King of Poland from 1815 to 1825. He was also the first Russian Grand Duke of Finland and
Lithuania. He saw himself as a Christian savior and gained great amounts of land for Russia due
to his participation in the Napoleonic Wars. He was originally liberally inclined, though revolts
later would lead him to revoke reforms he put in place at the start of his reign.
(Matt)
German Confederation- league of German states that replaced the HRE, created in 1825 by the
Congress of Vienna. It was mainly intended to create a strong front against France, and not to
serve any real political function. It consisted of 38 separate states but was dominated by Prussia
and Austria.
“Social Question”- Question that arose of what a government’s role was in regards to poverty.
The Malthusians and later the Social Darwinists believed that the government should do nothing
as poverty would either correct itself or was a necessity. However, most believed that the
government needed to address these problems, and British parliament addressed these problems
in the ‘30s and ‘40s with the Factory Act of 1833 and other acts that helped the working class
Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)- liberal social philosopher who founded utilitarianism, a doctrine
that argued for “the greatest happiness of the greatest number” in his works such as the
Introduction to the Principles and Morals of Legislation. He believed that only the pursuit of
social harmony could justify interfering with personal liberty. He tested his theories in the
prisons and helped reform the penal codes and regulations because he believed criminals could
be successfully rehabilitated.
Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872)- He was one of the new breed of liberal nationalists who
sprouted up after Napoleon’s conquest of Europe, spreading revolutionary ideals. He organized
Young Italy for the purpose of unifying Italy under a republican government of Italian nationals.
When Pope Pius IX fled, Mazzini became the head of the Republic of Rome, but was ousted by
French troops who restored Pius as ruler of the Papal States.
Germaine de Stael (1766-1804)- hailed as the founder of French Romanticism whose writings
influenced French political theory after 1815. She authored histories, novels, literary criticism
and political works that opposed the tyranny of Napoleons rule. She was influenced by
Rousseau, and in turn influenced Victor Hugo, another French writer.
Carlsbad Decrees (1819)- decrees which restricted free speech and civil liberties in the German
Confederation. It focused on the liberal university students who had participated in the Wars of
Liberation (1813-1815) in the hopes of instituting liberal and national reforms. An example of
the Metternich system of espionage, repression and censorship in Central Europe that attempted
to quash any constitutionalist or nationalistic sentiments that may have arisen during the
Napoleonic period.
(Frank)
Henri de Saint-Simon (1760-1825)- Known as the father of French socialism, Saint-Simon
believed that a just society should be reorganized under industrial lines, with efficiency and
productivity being the most valued qualities. He thought that the leaders of a society should be
industrial leaders, since they would primarily focus on massive industrial output,
accomplishments which were viewed as being of the highest order.
Peterloo Massacre- In August of 1819, the working class of Manchester wished to see changes in
Parliament take place as well as extending universal male suffrage and economic measures that
would compensate the working class for the horrible working conditions. However, when 80,000
people were gathered in St. Peter’s Field to debate parliamentary reform and new
economic measures, the British cavalry rampaged through the crowd, which resulted in many
casualties, in efforts to break up the crowd and halt the working class’s self-awareness.
Louis Philippe- Following the unpopular rule of Charles X and the subsequent revolution that
ousted him out of power, Louis Philippe, the former duc d’Orléans and Charles’s cousin, was
elected the new monarch of France. He promised a more constitutional form of government as
well as extended suffrage. However, as a result of the Revolution of 1848, Louis Philippe was
forced to abdicate and exile to England.(Referred to himself as the “Citizen King” Why?)
Great Reform Bill of 1832- During the Industrial Revolution when many peasants relocated to
cities, Parliament seats were still vested in rural areas that were controlled by the landed
aristocracy. Since the majority of the population shifted towards urban areas, the vast majority of
society, particularly the working class and former peasants, wasn’t represented in Parliament. As
a result of the Great Reform Bill of 1832, the middle class were allowed suffrage and industrial
and economic leaders were strengthened. This allowed for the possibility of future reforms as
well as support for the creation of political parties.
Second Republic- After the Revolution of 1848 in which Parisian laborers and skilled workers
protested against the city government from not holding a banquet whose participants were going
to protest the lack of universal suffrage, the National Guard along with many workers,
moderates, and radicals revolted against the government and initiated the Second Republic after
Louis Philippe fled France. The Second Republic tried to initiate social, political, and economic
reforms, problems that weren’t addressed by the restored monarchy. What was its fate?
Luxembourg Commission- The commission served as a committee that was composed of
laborers, workers, and employers. It served primarily to settle economic differences, notably
serving as a platform to debate workers’ rights, although in actuality little was decided of
strategic importance due to the government’s lack of control.
(Keith)
Frankfurt parliament- the first freely elected parliament for all of Germany. Session was held
from May 18, 1848 to May 31, 1849. Its existence was both part of and the result of the "March
Revolution" in the states of the German Confederation. What was its goal? What is the outcome?
Chartism- movement for political and social reform in the United Kingdom during the mid-19th
century, between 1838 and 1859. It takes its name from the People's Charter of 1838. Chartism
was possibly the first mass working labor movement in the world.
Klemens von Metternich- German-born Austrian politician and statesman, He served as the
Foreign Minister of the Holy and its successor state, the Austrian Empire, from 1809 until the
liberal revolutions of 1848 forced his resignation. Key figure in Congress of Vienna. What did he
represent in European politics at the time?
Lajos Kossuth- Hungarian lawyer, journalist, politician and Regent-President of Hungary in
1849. He was widely honored during his lifetime as a freedom fighter of democracy in Europe.
Quadruple Alliance- signed by the victorious powers of great Britain, Austria, Russia, and
Prussia in November 1815. it was intended t protect europe against future french aggression and
the preserve the status quo.
Queen Victoria- (Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901) was the monarch of the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death. From 1 May
1876, she used the additional title of Empress of India. She married her first cousin, Prince
Albert of Saxe- Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their nine children and 26 of their 34 grandchildren
who survived childhood married into royal and noble families across the continent.
(Julia)
Utilitarianism- (Jeremy Bentham) fundamentally liberal doctrine that argued for “the greatest
happiness of the greatest number” where does this fit ideologally?
Humiliation of Olmutz- (1850) Prussian ministers signed an agreement with Austrian ministers
in the Moravian city in which Prussia was forced to accept Austria’s dominance to enter into war
Conservatism- stressed the corporate nature of European society; in place of reason and progress,
conservatives saw organic growth and tradition
Pierre Joseph Proudhon- (1809-1865) involved in politics and writer of the book What is
Property? in which he attacks the injustices of inequality and coined the phrase, "property is
theft". In the book Proudhon attacks the injustices of inequality and coined the phrase, "property
is theft". Proudhon contrasted the right of property with the rights of liberty, equality, and
security; opposed Marxist ideas; reduce nationalism and called for a Federal Europe; reasoned
that industrialization had destroyed worker’s rights; argued for Socialist concept of limited
possession; archaistic view of society, hated government, and favored small self-ruling
communities of producers; ideal world of comfort but not great wealth
Charles X- (1824-1830) the former comte d’Artois; assumed the throne in 1824; dedicated
himself to a t rue restoration of kingship as it had existed before the Revolution; realigned the
monarchy with the Catholic Church and undertook several unpopular measures (death penalty
for guilty of sacrilege); Four Ordinances, censor press, change electoral law to favor his
candidates, dissolve the newly elected Chamber, and order new elections.
(Chen)
Young Italy- it was a political movement founded in 1831 by Giuseppe Mazzini. Its members
adopted nicknames taken from figures of the Italian Middle Ages. The goal of this movement
was to create a united Italian republic through promoting a general insurrection in the Italian
reactionary states and in the lands occupied by the Austrian Empire. Mazzini’s belief was that a
popular uprising would create a unified Italy.
People’s Charter- the name of Chartism was taken from here. In 1837, six members of
parliament and six working men, including William Lovett, formed a committee, which then
published the People’s Charter in 1838. This stipulated the six main aims of the movement
including vote, secret ballot, and no property qualification for members of parliament, payment
of members, equal constituencies and annual parliaments.
Alphonse de Lamartine- he was a French writer, poet and politician who was instrumental in the
foundation of the Second Republic. During his term as a politician in the Second Republic, he
led efforts that eventually led to the abolition of slavery and the death penalty, as well as the
enshrinement of the right to work and the short-lived national workshop programs. He failed in
the presidential election.
National workshops- refer to areas of work provided for the unemployed by the French Second
Republic after the Revolution of 1848. The political crisis which resulted in the abdication of
Louis Philippe caused an acute industrial crisis adding to the general agricultural and commercial
distress which had prevailed throughout 1847. It rendered the problem of unemployment in Paris
very acute. The provisional government under the influence of one of its members, Louis Blanc
passed a decree guaranteeing government-funded jobs.
Charles Maurice de Talleyrand- he was a French diplomat. He worked successfully from the
regime of Louis XVI, through the French Revolution and then under Napoleon I, Louis XVIII,
Charles X, and Louis-Philippe. He is also notorious for turning his back on the Catholic Church
after ordination to the priesthood and episcopacy. He protected the rights of France during the
Congress of Vienna.
The Communist Manifesto- it is a short 1848 publication written by the German Marxist political
theorists Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. It has since been recognized as one of the world’s
most influential political manuscripts. Commissioned by the Communist League, it laid out the
League’s purposes and program. It presents an analytical approach to the class struggle and the
problems of capitalism, rather than a prediction of communism’s potential future forms.
Map Exercise
(Julia)
1. Considering all the revolutions between 1830 and 1848, what part of Europe was most
prone to revolutionary violence? (Big Picture: France and Central Europe) What parts of
Europe escaped revolutionary violence? (Iberia, Russia, Scandinavia) What parts of Europe
experienced permanent changes of government? (France + creation of Belgium and Greece)
The Revolutions of 1830 and 1848 assert that France was perhaps the most prone to
revolutionary violence, since the uprisings in France sparked further uprisings in other
European countries. The French Revolution of 1830 began following Charles X’s Four
Ordinances; however tension had been building since his decision to restore the kingship
that had existed prior to the Revolution, and a severe winter drove up food prices by 75
percent. In 1848, France once again triggered the uprisings that swept Europe. Bourgeois
reformers had assembled in Paris for their largest banquet in support of extension of the
vote. City officials, however, became nervous at the prospect of having thousands of
workers assembled and cancelled the banquet. Parisians immediately demonstrated against
the government’s “repressive” measures. With the death of a demonstrator, the Revolution
had begun. These tensions spread to other European countries, such as the German states
and Austria. Countries like France, Britain, and Italy were particularly affected by these
uprisings. In France it led to a “vast array” of liberal thought. They sought to preserve the
gains from the revolution and continue the orderly rule. Liberal thinking dominated British
politics which was implemented with the Great Reform bill of 1832. While encouraging
new political parties, it strengthened industrial and commercial towns, enfranchised the idle
classes, and opened way to new social reforms. Italy had a yearning for nationalism and its
liberal political government sought to overthrow tyrannical rule. With Giuseppe Mazzini the
liberal nationalist movement began. However, not all of Europe dealt with demonstrations;
Spain and Portugal managed to escape the Revolutions of Europe.
2. Locate:
a. Nations with revolutions in 1830 = “30”
b. Nations with revolutions in 1848 = “48”
c. Permanent changes in government = “X”
48
X
30
30
48 X
48
48
30
48
48
X 30
30
Making Connections
(Emma)
1. What was the primary objective of the Congress of Vienna? How was it realized? How did
the alliance system fit into the objectives?
The primary objective of the Congress of Vienna was to create a stable European peace
based on legitimacy, compensation, and a balance of power. The four allies of England,
Austria, Prussia and Russia determined the peace. In France, the Bourbon monarchy was
restored under Louis XVIII. Buffer kingdoms of the Netherlands and Sardinia contained
France. The German Confederation was formed instead of remaking the Holy Roman
Empire; this consisted of 38 states bound in a Federal Diet. Poland was split between Prussia
and Russia. Prussia was given additional German states and was a contender with Austria for
leadership of the German confederation. Britain was the only ally not to receive new
territories. To secure the settlements, two alliances emerged: the Quadruple Alliance of
Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Great Britain, and the Holy Alliance of Austria, Prussia, and
Russia. The Quadruple maintains the status quo in Europe, while the Holy Alliance goes
further in preserving peace and Christianity. The liberalism of England offset the
conservative members of the other members. What provisions were made to ensure that
France’s military ambitions would be held in check? On the other hand, why was France
brought into the congress’ deliberations? In negotiations what serves as evidence that the
diplomats were still in a world of ancient regime balance of power? Along a similar vein,
note that diplomats and ruling heads of state were not as yet answerable to “the people.”
Huge factor not yet considered – nationalism.
(Keith)
2. How did European society change after 1815? How did states attempt to meet social
challenges? In what way did family structures change?
As the borders of Europe were being redrawn so was the society in these countries.
Nationalism emerged from the desire to create constitutional governments free of tyranny
and foreign domination. Nationalists sought to capture the national spirit in literature, art, or
music. Another political doctrine that emerged from this changing society was Socialism.
Socialism was the political creation of industrialization. Some people such as the French
utopian Henri thought that industrialized society could be organized according to the
hierarchy of productive work. Another utopian, Charles Fourier, urged the formation of
laboring groups called phalansteries. Members of phalansteries were mutually responsible for
the welfare of the group. Others Such as Karl Marx and Friedrich Engles thought that the
growing rift between classes would lead to an inevitable class struggle.
(Robert)
3. What were the new political and intellectual currents of the 19th Century? How were these
new ideas related to the new Europe established by the Congress of Vienna?
After 1815, the world was changing in many ways. As national boundaries were being
redefined, the ways in which Europeans regarded their world were also being transformed.
The Industrial Revolution led to an increase in labor and a decrease in jobs that needed them.
The new technology that the Industrial Revolution created combined with political changes
to challenge old values; new definitions of worth emerged from the increasingly mechanized
world of work. The fixed, caste distinctions of the old aristocratic world were under attack,
and the urban middle class was proving to be a potent economic, political, and cultural force.
This relatively new class, along with the burgeoning proletariat class, developed new ideas of
thrift and politics.
The political and economic upheavals of the first half of the nineteenth century encouraged a
new breed of thinkers to search for ways to explain the transformations of the period. The
search for understanding during this era gave birth to new ideologies -- liberalism,
nationalism, utilitarianism, conservativism, and socialism -- that continue to shape the ideas
and institutions of the present day. Liberals believed that individuals had certain inalienable
freedoms and that authority was corrupt. Utilitarians believed that people had the right to do
whatever made them happy as long as they did not harm anyone else. Conservatives called
for movement back to the pre-revolutionary days of Europe, while socialists called for
(among many different things) societies that placed productive workers in the most
prestigious social ranks. Some socialists called for worker uprisings, while others simply
hoped to reshape the current societies in which they lived.
Though many of these ideologies began to take shape before the Congress of Vienna, they
picked up great speed after its political restructurings. Greater than anything else, however,
the Congress affected nationalism. It pulled countries apart and smashed others together in
ways that made their inhabitants cry out in indignation. Suddenly, small states found
themselves forced into contact with others that shared little cultural similarities. Napoleon
had introduced nationalism to Europe, and the Congress of Vienna provided the continent
with the tinder that would eventually lead it into one of the greatest wars the world had ever
seen.
(Chen)
4. What was the result of the revolutions of 1830?
The revolutions of 1830 were a revolutionary wave in Europe. It took place in the United
Kingdom of the Netherlands, France, Greece and Poland. There revolutions known as
Belgian Revolution, July Revolution and November Uprising. The revolutions were led by
the King of French, who published series laws which inhibited the freedom. It caused the
strikes and revolutions. The Belgian Revolution and July Revolution led to the establishment
of constitutional monarchies called popular. The Greek Revolution won the independence
from the Ottoman Empire. The roles of the King changed which reflects that the King does
not take his mandate from God but from the people themselves. The November Uprising was
the only lost major revolution of 1830. Although the Polish uprising failed, it provided a
distraction for Russia which could not therefore interfere with the matters of the French or
Belgian revolutionaries. Poland became one part of Russia.
(Spencer)
5. Why was reform necessary in Britain in the nineteenth century? How successful was the
reform movement?
Years of bad harvests, unemployment, and depression, coupled with growing
dissatisfaction with the government’s efforts to address social problems, culminated in a
national reform movement of the 1830s that had its greatest expression in the fight for
universal manhood suffrage. The problem originated in the fact that landowners traditionally
ruled England. There control was strengthened by the migration of citizens from rural areas
to large towns. The large towns had no parliamentary representation, and the dwindling
county electorates maintained their parliamentary strength. This led to the creation of rotten
boroughs, or areas which retained representation greater than their population justified. Thus
there was an unequal distribution of power. Liberal reformers attempted to reassign
parliamentary seats based on population, but this resulted in stalemate, which was only
broken when popular protest by the lower classes provoked the fear of civil war. The Great
Reform Bill of 1832 introduced new legislation, which strengthened the industrial and
commercial elite of the towns, enfranchised most of the middle class, opened the way to
social reforms, and encouraged the formation of political parties. However, a large
percentage of the populace still did not have the vote. This led to the Chartist movement. The
carter the leaders proposed included demands for universal manhood suffrage, a secret ballot,
salaries for parliamentary service (which would enable most men to be involved in
parliament), elimination of the requirement that a person must own property in order to run
for office, equal electoral districts, and annual elections. Chartist appeal was greatest in times
of economic hardship, and thus the bad harvests and poor economy of the 1840s fueled
support of Chartism. However, Chartism eventually failed, and universal manhood suffrage,
along with many of the other demands of the Chartists, was not met. Thus the reform
movement was largely unsuccessful in actually achieving its most important goal.
(Frank)
6. Where did revolutions break out in 1848? What was the result of these revolutions?
The zeal of revolution was widely felt throughout Europe in 1848, where popular
upheavals occurred in France, the German lands, the Habsburg lands, and Italy. These
revolutions occurred for various reasons, but a common thread was that they all resulted from
social implications of the existing economic and political environment. The Revolution of
1848 in France revolved around the widespread call to suffrage and better economic rights
and working conditions and led to the creation of the Second Republic, which was more
constitutional in nature and tried to amend these problems, although this wasn’t the case due
to the inefficiency of the provisional government. Various German leaders and middle class
members met in Frankfurt to create a constitution that would unify the German states,
although Kaiser Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia, given the ability to lead Germany, refused
on account of having to answer to a liberal parliament. In the Habsburg lands, revolutionaries
had varying reasons to protest Habsburg rule, but the most common reason was for ethnic
and national sovereignty, resulting from the fact that the Habsburg Empire was a multiethnic
and multicultural state that was composed of various ethnicities that didn’t always cooperate.
In Italy, Venice, Lombardy, and much of northern Italy attempted to limit and remove
Habsburg influence by creating more liberal forms of constitutions. Pope Pius IX was forced
to escape Rome. However, the Austrians successfully reasserted control of northern Italy
while the French sent aid to quell the liberal takeover of Rome by restoring Pius as leader of
the Papal States. As can be seen, despite massive protests and revolutions, the attempts of the
middle class to acquire power were largely smashed by the old governmental powers, usually
through military repression. Revolution was successful in France, although the newly formed
government wasn’t able to firmly establish a lasting power base.
(Matt)
7. What was the source of tension in Europe in 1850? How was it related to the failure of the
revolutions on 1848?
While the Revolutions of 1848 had largely failed and the ruling classes still held power,
many of the underlying tensions still remained. The nationalistic feelings stirred by Napoleon
were still simmering under the surface despite ignored. The balance of power reached by the
Congress of Vienna was weakened, as Austria’s decline as a major power was becoming
apparent while Prussia assumed a greater role despite the treaty at Olmutz. The revolutions
had failed largely because of the split between moderate liberals and radical democrats, and
because they had frightened members of the middle class and failed to elicit their support.
Many of the bourgeoisie accepted the dominance of the old order because while oppressive it
maintained stability that was needed for business.
Putting Larger Concepts Together
(Carter)
1. What accounts for the prominence of central Europe in the revolutionary movements
between 1830 and 1848?
The Congress of Vienna was orchestrated by Prince Metternich to return Europe to prerevolutionary and Napoleon France. What he and the other conservative leaders did not
realize was that it was too late to turn back the clock. Napoleon is often called the revolution
on horseback and as his armies stormed across Europe they "liberated" the people from the
old monarchies. Many of these peoples rose up against their ruler and welcomed Napoleon
with open arms. The spread of revolutionary idea and ideals galvanized the citizens of central
European countries to demand more from their government in return for their work. The
second thing that they missed was the rise of nationalism. For so long regionalism had
dominated Central Europe which was evident with the multitudes of principalities, duchies,
and independent cities. When Napoleon invaded he united the people unintentionally so that
they saw themselves as part of a nation rather than a town. He united the Germans in the
Confederation of the Rhine and the Poles with the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. During the
Congress of Vienna the members moved and traded territories like poker chips to create a
balance of power and ring France with strong states. The Congress haphazardly threw
completely different people frequently with animosity towards each other into one country.
This is especially prevalent in the Austrian Empire where its multi ethnicity proved to be its
downfall.
(Eni)
2. Considering the political history of Europe from 1815 to 1870, how successful was the
Congress of Vienna in establishing stability?
The Congress of Vienna was an attempt to ensure peace and stability throughout Europe
after the social and political changes caused by Napoleon. The Congress was attended four
powers England, Austria, Prussia and Russia as well as a French minister. The four countries
leading the Congress redrew the boundaries of Europe so that France would be surrounded
by buffer states and so that none of the four could exceed the balance of power. Unluckily
these new boundaries were decided without taking in consideration the different ethnicities
existing in the new created countries. They also attempted to reestablish traditional
conservative government. New existing ideologies directed the discontent of the poor and the
hungry into violent revolts against the governments in Europe.
Napoleon had spread ideas of liberalism and feelings of nationalism in the lands that he
conquered or crossed over. Countries that had been exploited by Napoleon for his military
campaigns now wanted to have governments free of tyranny and foreign domination. People
wanted to be led by a government that shared the same language and culture as them not by
international forces. According to liberalistic ideals, the massed wanted more freedoms and
political power. They looked forward to constitutions, suffrage, civil liberties, and
withdrawal of government from private action. Nevertheless, country leaders wanted to
maintain conservative control.
The rapid increase of urban poor made the cities ugly breeding places for disease, crime, and
the decay of morality. While the plight of the poor got exacerbated, the gap between classes
continued to widen and so increasing the social discontent. Different philosophies were born
in order to solve the problem of the growing numbers of the poor. Liberal ideology argued
that the poor should be left to sort their problems out, but the masses expected the
government to find solutions for their constant hunger and distress.
In between 1815-1870 Europe was plagued by constant revolts. Bad crops and the rise of
food prices brought revolts in Britain, Germany and Switzerland. While the revolts were
suppressed, often very brutally, they pressured for reforms aiding the poor. The French
monarch, Charles X, was forced to abdicate due to a revolt when he attempted to restore the
conservative monarchy. Nevertheless, the new government retained the political monopoly of
the bourgeoisie. Underground attempts were made to unify Italy. Nationalistic urges
overtook Belgium and Greece, which became independent of their foreign domination thanks
to British and French help. Polish revolts were brutally crushed by the Russian tsar because
the peasants and landlords failed to collaborate. The tsar was severely criticized in English
papers and cartoons. Often conservative monarchs stuck to their ideology even at their own
expense. When Frederick William IV was offered the crown of the newly formed Germany,
he refused because the crown had been offered to him by the people. He refused because his
conservative beliefs would not allow him to accept that the people had the power to choose
their ruler. The many revolts in between 1815-1870 show a growing consciousness of politics
in daily life.
While the Congress of Vienna was unable to ensure peace in Europe, (it was responsible for
some of the revolts of the time) due to its alliance system and collaboration the five powers it
created a new diplomatic era. Europe started acting as a whole. The Quintuple Alliance met
periodically to discuss international affairs and the Holy Alliance aimed to preserve peace
and Christianity.