FEM 4203
ANALISIS KUALITI HIDUP
Sem ester 2, 2011/12
Laily Bt. Hj Paim
laily@putra.upm.edu.my
1
Konsep & model
kualiti hidup
1. Konsep dan pendekatan
2. Dimensi
What comes to mind when we
think of QOL . . .
Level vs. Standard vs. QOL
Level of living
Standard of living
Quality of life
Real experience faced Quantity and quality
Final output of the
by individual or
of goods and services interaction between
group.
owned by individual
social, health,
(through purchasing
economy and
or provided for them) environment which
influence the social
development
Level and standard of living
Level of Living
• Real experience faced by individual or group.
• Formed by combinations of complex consumption, work environment,
ownership, freedom, environment and many others (balanced and
harmony).
• Related to fulfilling needs and wants.
Measurement of Level of Living
Direct measure
– consumption (resources that are actually used).
Indirect measure (Proxy)
– socio-economics variables.
– income (wage from productive activity, transfer
income, and other income)
Relationship between Consumption
& WB
• More is better ??
• Gap between level and standard of
consumption
• Balanced consumption elements
• Goal achievement gap
• Social comparison gap
• Best previous experiences gap
Categories of Level of Living
high ------ low
superior ------ inferior
expensive ------ thrifty
elaborate ------ simple
ample ------ restricted
A well-balanced simple plane of living is much better as
compared to an ill-balanced elaborate plane of living.
The Amish: plain dress and resisting modern conveniences.
Ghandi: using one's resources in the most minimal way so as not
to deprive others."
Islam: Prophet (PBUH) has not adopted the ways of the rich but embraced
a simple way of life which is the mode of Fuqara' - poor people. Thus,
he remained contented with simple food and had no relish for extravagant feasts.
Standard of living
Standard of Living
• Level that family wants to achieve, achievement portrays success and
failure causes frustration
Quality of life (QOL)
• Means a good life. A good life is the same as
living a life with a high quality.
• All religions and philosophies have a notion of
a good life. Notions about a good life are
closely linked to the culture of which you are a
part.
• The cultural conditioning makes us tend to
include happiness, fulfillment of needs,
functioning in a social context, etc.
Definition of QOL
• Is a product of interaction between various
factors including social, health, economy,
environment etc.
• Generally: QOL is what make individual/ family/
community happy.
• Can be defined from these aspects:
– Physical: health, nutrition, basic needs and safety
– Personal : work satisfaction, leisure, wealth, family
and friends, availability of goods.
– Community: fair government, freedom, equity,
education for all.
Aspects of quality of life
QOL
ASPECTS
The
 How good a life each individual feels he/she has.
subjective  Each individual personally evaluates how he/she views things and
QOL
his/her feelings and notions.
 Content with life and happy reflect the subjective QOL.
The
 How good one’s life is at a deeper level.
existential  live life in accordance with certain spiritual and religious ideals
QOL
The
 How one’s life is perceived by the outside world.
objective  This view is influenced by the culture in which people live.
QOL
 The objective QOL = a person’s ability to adapt to the values of a
culture (e.g. social status/the status symbols one should have to be
a good member of that culture).
Approaches in Examining QOL
Basic needs approach.
Looking into minimum level of living, it is defined
from the aspects of health status, eating habits
and literacy. Elements in basic need approach
are life expectancy, literacy rate and income per
capita.
Human development approach
Humans are important to achieve development
goals and are the main sources for economics
growth.
Capability approach.
The capability of someone to do something
meaningful to achieve well-being which leads to
a better life.
2
Indikator & pengukuran
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Kekuatan dan kelemahan
Domain dan indikator kualiti hidup
Hubungan, kesejahteraan emosi, kesihatan, kesejahteraan
Kebendaan, pekerjaaan dan aktiviti produktif, komuniti,
keselamatan,
Persekitaran dan sebagainya
Indeks Pembangunan Manusia (HDI, UNDP)
Indeks Fizikal Kualiti Hidup (PQLI)
Indeks Kesejahteraan Ekonomi (IEWB)
Lain-lain indeks
Measurement of Quality of Life
Types of measurement
Subjectively – “good” feeling and satisfaction;
Objectively – fulfilling social and cultural
demand from the aspect of material, social
status and physical well-being.
Perennial measurement
Three aspects of quality of life for complete
achievement is material, intellectual and
spiritual.
Conventional measurement
In the form of material and quantity (example:
GNP). There is cost/limit to over materialism
including polluting the environment and
human achievement, in real world it means
material is not everything.
Comprehensive Model of QOL
Quality of
Life
Being
Belonging
Becoming
Physical
Physical
Practical
Psycholog
ical
Social
Leisure
Spiritual
Communi
ty
Growth
Quality of Life Research Unit, University of Toronto
Physical Being
BEING
Psychological
Being
Spiritual Being
BE L O N GI N G
BE C O M I N G






Physical
Belonging
Social
Belonging

Community
Belonging

Practical
Becoming

Leisure
Becoming
Growth
Becoming









Being physically able to get around.
My nutrition and the food I eat.
Being free of worry and stress.
The mood I am usually in.
Having hope for the future.
My own ideas of right and wrong.
The house or apartment I live in.
The neighborhood I live in.
Being close to people in my family.
Having a spouse or special person.
Being able to get professional services (medical, social, etc.)
Having enough money.
Doing things around my house.
Working at a job or going to school.
Outdoor activities (walks, cycling, etc.)
Indoor activities (TV, cycling, etc.)
Improving my physical health and fitness.
Being able to cope with changes in my life.
QOL: A System Model
Input
Perception/opinion
Output
Family and friends
Work
Culture
Demographic
characteristics
Neighborhood/
shelter
Community
Health
Socio-economic
condition
Education
Spiritual
Feedback
Quality of Life/
sense of wellbeing
Index and elements in measuring QOL
Elemen
Indeks
Human
dev
(UNDP)
Relationship
with family &
friends
Emotional
Well-being
Health
Material
Well-being
Work &
Productivity
Feeling of
belonging to
the local
society
Personal
security/
safety
Quality of
Environment
Physical
QOL
(Morris)
Econom
ic WB
American
Demograph
ic
Dasgupta
& Wales
(1992)
WHO
(1993)
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
Hagerty
et al.
(2001)
Schalock
(2000)
Felce
(1996)
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
Cummins
(1997)
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
Malaysian Quality of Life
“Encompassing personal advancements, a
healthy life style, access and freedom to
pursue knowledge and a standard of living
which surpasses the fulfillment of the basic
needs of individuals and their psychological
needs, to achieve a level of social well being
compatible with nation’s aspiration”
Malaysian Quality of Life 1999.
Malaysian QOL Index
Culture & Leisure
Public safety
Social
participation
Income &
Distribution
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Working life
Transport &
communication
1990
2002
Health
Family life
Environment
Education
Housing
2009
Area and indicator of MQOL Index
Area
Income & Distribution 


Working Life




Transports &

Communications





Indicator
Real Per Capita Income
Gini Coefficient
Incidence of Poverty
Unemployment Rate
Trade Disputes
Man Days Lost due to Industrial Actions
Industrial Accident Rate
Private Motorcars & Motorcycles
Commercial Vehicles
Road Development Index
Telephones
Internet Subscribers
Average Daily Newspaper Circulation
Area and indicator of MQOL Index
Area
Health
Education
Housing














Indicator
Male Life Expectancy at Birth
Female Life Expectancy at Birth
Infant Mortality Rate
Doctor-Population Ratio
Literacy Rate
Pre-School Participation Rate
Secondary School Participation Rate
University Participation Rate
Primary School Teacher-Student Ratio
Secondary School Teacher-Student Ratio
Average Price of Low-Medium-Cost House
Low-Cost Housing Units
Housing Units with Piped Water
Housing Units with Electricity
Area and indicator of MQOL Index
Area
Environment



Family Life




Social Participation 


Public Safety


Culture & Leisure



Indicator
Air Quality
Water Quality
Forested Land
Divorces
Crude Birth Rate
Household Size
Juvenile Crimes
Registered Voters
Membership in Registered Non-Profit Organizations
Registered Residents’ Associations
Crimes
Road Accidents
Membership in Public Libraries
Television Viewers
Domestic Hotel Guests
Physical Quality of Life Index(Morris)
Encompassing literacy, infant mortality rate and
life expectancy.
Quality of life indicators, Life During
Growth, (World bank).
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Individual rights and democracy
Political stability and war
Education
Health
Transportation and Communication
Class and gender inequality
“BAD”
Easterly, W. (March 1999).
Quality of life indicators
Easterly, W. (March 1999). Life During Growth, World Bank.
1.1: Individual Rights and Democracy
•Freedom from expropriation
•Government does not break contracts
•Bureaucratic quality
•Rule of law
•Freedom from corruption
•Civil liberties
•Human rights rating
•% Of children (age 10-14 ) working (-)
•Political rights
•Index of independence of politics from military
Quality of life indicators
Easterly, W. (March 1999). Life During Growth, World Bank.
1.2: Political instability and war
•Cabinet changes (-)
•Deaths from political violence, per capita (-)
•General strikes (-)
•Government crises (-)
•Number of assassinations per million per year (-)
•Number of coups per year (-)
•Number of revolutions per year (-)
•Purges (-)
•Riots (-)
•War deaths per capita (-)
•Freedom from external conflict risk
•Freedom from civil war risk
•Absence of racial tensions
•% Involved in separatist movements (-)
Quality of life indicators
Easterly, W. (March 1999). Life During Growth, World Bank.
1.3: Education
•schooling years for adult population (25+)
•% literate
•% "no schooling" in population (-)
•gross enrollment ratio for higher education
•gross enrollment ratio for secondary education
•gross enrollment ratio for primary education
•museums per capita
•Book titles published per capita
Quality of life indicators
Easterly, W. (March 1999). Life During Growth, World Bank.
1.4: Health
Life Expectancy at age zero
Mortality - infant (-)
Mortality -under-5 (-)
Daily calorie intake
Daily protein intake
Hospital beds per capita
Physicians per capita
Nurses per capita
% With access to safe water
% Rural with access to safe water
% Urban with access to safe water
Access to sanitation
Access to sanitation (rural)
Access to sanitation (urban)
Quality of life indicators
Easterly, W. (March 1999). Life During Growth, World Bank.
1.5: Transport and Communications
• Paved Roads as share of all Roads
•Road length per car
•Railroad Mileage per square mile
•Telephones per capita
•International telexes, minutes per capita
•telegrams per capita
•Radios per capita
•TVs per capita
•Mail Per capita
•Fax machines per capita
Quality of life indicators
Easterly, W. (March 1999). Life During Growth, World Bank.
1.6: Inequality across class and gender
•Gini coefficient (-)
•Share of income of bottom 20%
•Share of income held by middle 60%
•Share of income of top 20% (-)
•Female to male schooling years (age 26+)
•Ratio of Women's Literacy to Men's
•Female to male primary enrollment
•Female to male secondary enrollment
•Female to male higher enrollment
Quality of life indicators
Easterly, W. (March 1999). Life During Growth, World Bank.
1.7: "Bads"
Fraud Rate per capita (-)
Freedom from political terrorism (-)
Homicide rate per capita (-)
Manslaughter per capita (-)
Robbery rate per capita (-)
Rapes per capita (-)
Drug crimes per capita (-)
Carbon dioxide emissions per capita (-)
Industry CO2 emissions per capita (-)
Sulfur dioxide emissions per capita (-)
Nitrogen oxides emissions per capita (-)
Suspended particulate matter (-)
Annual forest area change (%)
Waste paper production per capita (-)
Injuries at work (per 1000 workers) (-)
Suicides per capita (-)
The World Health Organization QOL
Instruments
Domain
1. Physical health
2. Psychological
3. Level of
Independence
Facets incorporated within domains
Overall Quality of Life and General Health
Energy and fatigue
Pain and discomfort
Sleep and rest
Bodily image and appearance
Negative feelings
Positive feelings
Self-esteem
Thinking, learning, memory and concentration
Mobility
Activities of daily living
Dependence on medicinal substances and medical aids
Work Capacity
The World Health Organization QOL
Instruments
Domain
Facets incorporated within domains
Overall Quality of Life and General Health
4. Social relationships
5. Environment
6. Spirituality/ Religion/
Personal Beliefs
Personal relationships
Social support
Sexual activity
Financial resources
Freedom, physical safety and security
Health and social care: accessibility and quality
Home environment
Opportunities for acquiring new information and skills
Participation in and opportunities for recreation/leisure
Physical environment (pollution/noise/traffic/climate)
Transport
Religion /Spirituality/Personal beliefs
Factors and Indicators of QOL
Factor
Indicator
1.
Material wellbeing
GDP per person
1.
Health
Life expectancy at birth, years.
1.
Political stability and security ratings.
1.
Political stability and
security
Family life
1.
Community life
1.
Climate and geography
1.
Job security
1.
Political freedom
1.
Gender equality
Source
Economist Intelligence
Unit
US Census Bureau
Economist
Intelligence Unit
UN; Euromonitor
Divorce rate (per 1,000 population),
converted into index of 1 (lowest divorce
rate) to 5 (highest).
Dummy variable taking value of 1 if country ILO; World Values Survey
has either high rate of church attendance or
trade-union membership; zero otherwise.
Latitude, to distinguish between warmer
CIA World Factbook
and colder climates.
Unemployment rate, %.
Economist Intelligence
Unit; ILO.
Average of indices of political and civil
Freedom House
liberties. Scale of 1 (completely free) to 7
(unfree).
Ratio of average male and female earnings, UNDP Human
latest available data.
Development Report
Characteristics of ideal
measurement for QOL
(1) Dynamic, which means measurement that
can show potential development as
compared to only showing the current
development status,
(2) Measurement according to changes in
human’s perception of development,
(3) Taking into consideration the changes in
main motivating power such as information
technology.
3
Aktiviti ekonomi dan
kemiskinan
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Konsep
Pengukuran
Aktiviti ekonomi pasaran dan bukan pasaran
Insiden kemiskinan di Malaysia dan negara lain
Unsur rintangan dan sokongan ke arah meningkatkan
kesejahteraan hidup keluarga
Household production
• The production of goods and services by the members of a
household;
– For their own consumption
– Using their own capital
– Their own unpaid labor.
• Goods and services produced by households for their own use
include;
– Accommodation
– Meals
– Clean clothes
– Child care
Process of household production
• The transformation of purchased intermediate commodities
(supermarket groceries and power-utility electricity) into final
consumption commodities (meals and clean clothes).
• Households use their own capital (kitchen equipment, tables
and chairs, kitchen and dining room space) and their own
labor (hours spent in shopping, cooking, laundry and ironing).
Production/Consumption Model
Input
Production
Good and
services
for sale/ gift/
exchange
Commodity
Consumption
Well-being
Human
Capital
The who, what, where, when, why and how of a
measure of consumption poverty
What:
What resource
measure is going to
be used?
Who:
Whose standard of
living is being
measured?
How:
Which measure
and thresholds are
used?
Why:
What is the
purpose of these
measures?
When:
What time period is
used?
Where:
Do the measures
differ by geographic
location?
Measurement issues
Ruang
&konteks
Patut ambilkira sebab
kemiskinan
Jangka pendek vs
jangka panjang
• Sumber vs utiliti?
• Apa yang boleh dicapai vs apa yang sebenarnya dicapai?
• Aspek apa yang patut di ambilkira? Material, sosial,
budaya, politik?
Sebab
kemiskinan
Universaliti
Perspektif
masa
Multidime
nsionaliti
Unit
diukur
Individu vs keluarga vs
sempadan geografi
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Bagaimana tentukan garis kemiskinan
Mutlak vs relatif?
Boleh diguna pakai pada masyarakat lain
Objektif vs subjektif
value judgement mempengaruhi definisi &pengukuran
Siapa yang patut menentukan
Perbezaan sistem ekonomi eg. Sosialis &kapitalis?
•Boleh guna satu indeks?
•Bagaimana memilih dimesi?
•Bagaimana menggabungkan dimensi?
What difference a measure makes
• Using consumption-based measures, in comparison with income-based
measures
– The levels of poverty and inequality tend to decrease
– The WB of the elderly tends to increase relative to other groups (mainly due
to the inclusion of a value for owner-occupied housing in the measure of
consumption).
• Consumption and income definitions have somewhat different
implications for who is counted as poor.
– A consumption resource definition will
• include the people who are income-rich but consumption-poor (people
who choose to spend at levels below the poverty threshold when they
actually have incomes that would support consumption above that level).
• exclude people who are income-poor (e.g., because they lost a job), but
who sustain their consumption at a level above the poverty threshold (by
spending from savings, borrowing from relatives, or charging to their
credit cards).
– An income resource definition will exclude people who have adequate
income during the measurement period, whether they spend it or not.
Masalah mengukur pendapatan
Perbelanjaan
kurang silap
berbanding
pendapatan
Tak suka soalan
pendapatan
Perbelanjaan >
pendapatan
kalangan
berpendapatan
rendah
Perbelanjaan
lebih mudah
diingat drpd
pendapatan
PENDAPATAN
Perbelanjaan
lebih stabil
berbanding
pendapatan
Under-reported -Anggaran
simpanan yang
jauh lebih rendah
Poverty Line Income
Rural
Urban
Rural
Urban
Johor
711
647
Perlis
667
621
Kedah
683
636
Selangor
760
677
Kelantan
618
572
Tganu
664
662
Melaka
710
653
Sabah
821
802
N.Semb
684
680
Swak
779
756
Pahang
703
651
KL
P.Pinang
751
704
Labuan
Perak
666
630
880
821
802
Model household: One male and one female (aged 18-29), two boys aged 3 and 9, and a girl aged 5.