BRAIN
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1
MENTAL HOSPITAL PHONE MENU
•
•
Hello and thank you for calling The State Mental Hospital.
Please select from the following options menu:
If you are obsessive-compulsive, press 1 repeatedly.
If you are co-dependent, please ask someone to press 2 for you.
If you have multiple personalities, press 3, 4, 5 and 6.
If you are paranoid, we know who you are and what you want,
stay on the line so we can trace your call.
If you are delusional, press 7 and your call will be forwarded to the Mother Ship.
If you are schizophrenic, listen carefully and a little voice will tell You which number to press.
If you are manic-depressive, hang up. It doesn't matter which number you press,
nothing will make you happy anyway.
If you are dyslexic, press 9-6-9-6.
•
If you are bipolar, please leave a message after the beep or before the beep or after the beep.
But Please wait for the beep.
If you have short-term memory loss, press 9.
If you have short-term memory loss, press 9.
If you have short-term memory loss, press 9.
If you have low self-esteem, please hang up. Our operators are too busy to talk with you.
If you are menopausal, put the gun down, hang up, turn on the fan, lie down and cry.
You won't be crazy forever.
2
THE BRAIN
3
 ANATOMICAL REGIONS
 A. Cerebrum
 B. Diencephalon
Thalamus
 Hypothalamus


C. Brain Stem
Midbrain
 Pons
 Medulla oblongata


D. Cerebellum
THE BRAIN
4
 FUNCTIONAL REGIONS
 A. MOTOR AREAS
 B. SENSORY AREAS
 C. HIGHER FUNCTIONS
• MAJOR ANATOMICAL REGIONS OF THE BRAIN
– Cerebrum
– Diencephalon
– Brain Stem
– Cerebellum
5
The Brain
6
 Since the brain is so important, it is protected by
the skull, cerebrospinal fluid which cushions it,
and meninges which are membranes that surround
the brain and only let certain substances cross
through to the brain.
 The brain is one of the few organs that can only use
glucose to get ATP as its energy source. Therefore,
without some sugar in our bloodstream, the brain
will die. That’s one reason why proper nutrition is
so important.
The Brain
7
 By the way, geniuses have the same size brain as
everyone else; they are just more efficient at forming
synapses. They also have more synapses because
they have more dendrites. You can develop more
dendrites and synapses by keeping your brain active
by learning and reading new things.
 Six weeks after this class started, you will have more
dendrites and will be able to remember things better.
 We don’t use 90% of our brains, we use 100%.
Fun Fact: -Scientists say the higher your I.Q. The more
you dream.
CEREBRUM
8
 The brain is divided into parts, and is bilaterally




symmetrical.
In general, the left side controls the right half of the body,
and the right side of the brain controls the left half of the
body.
The largest portion is the CEREBRUM, which makes up
80% of the brain.
The cerebrum controls logical thought and conscious
awareness of the environment, and the sensory
and motor activity.
The cerebrum is made up mostly of grey matter (cell
bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons).
GYRUS AND SULCUS
9
 The superficial region of the brain (and all other
organs) is called the cortex.
 The surface is not smooth, it’s convoluted. Each
bump on the surface of the cerebrum is called a
GYRUS, and each shallow groove on the surface of
the cerebrum is called a SULCUS.
 This up and down formation increases the surface
area, and the surface (cortex) is where the
information processing is.
10
Figure 13.7a
11
CEREBRUM
12
 The cerebrum is divided into 2 halves called
CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES, which are
separated by the longitudinal fissure.
 Each hemisphere is divided into lobes, named for the
bones on top of them.
The Cerebral Hemispheres and lobes
13
Figure 13.7b, c
The Cerebral Hemispheres and lobes
14
Central sulcus
Lateral sulcus
 The FRONTAL LOBE
and PARIETAL LOBE
are separated by the
CENTRAL SULCUS.
 The TEMPORAL LOBE
is between the parietal
and frontal lobe,
separated by the
LATERAL SULCUS.
 The OCCIPITAL LOBE
does not have a real
border; it’s just a region.
 These are the anatomical
areas, but the functional
areas are more important.
CORPUS CALLOSUM
15
 If you slice the brain down the center in a mid-
sagittal section, you will slice through a white colored
tissue called the CORPUS CALLOSUM, which is
the area that connects the right and left halves of the
brain.
CORPUS CALLOSUM
16
 The CORPUS
CALLOSUM is the
area that connects
the right and left
halves of the
brain.
 The fact that it is
white means that
there are
myelinated axons
there.
Sheep brain
Corpus callosum
17
CORPUS CALLOSUM
18
 This is the area that is responsible for the right half
of the brain communicating with the left half of the
brain.
 If the corpus callosum was cut, there would be no
communication between the right and left halves of
the brain.
 Autism is a neurological disease that includes
problems with communication between the right
and left cerebral hemispheres.
 Music therapy for autism:

http://ezinearticles.com/?The-Benefits-of-Music-Therapy-for-Autism&id=432566
Phineas Gage
19
 Phineas was a railroad construction
foreman who survived an accident in
which a large iron rod was driven
completely through his head, severing
connections in his left frontal lobe.
 It changed his personality; he became
emotional and had frequent
outbursts.
 This was the first case suggesting that
damage to specific regions of the brain
might affect personality and behavior.
Phineas Gage
20
 The left side of the brain is
responsible for critical
thinking, and the right side
is responsible for emotion.
 Since his left frontal lobe
was damaged, his emotions
went unchecked.
CORPUS CALLOSUM: Fun Fact
21
 Women have a wider corpus callosum than men.
 They tend to use both sides of their brain more than men





do.
That’s why they like to talk more.
Give a little girl a doll, and she will hold it like a baby.
Give a little boy a doll, and he will take the head off to see
what it looks like inside.
This is a difference between using both sides of the brain vs.
just one side.
There is a new book out in paperback called “How to
Understand Women”
How To Understand Women
22
WHY WOMEN CAN'T SLEEP
23
In a woman’s brain,
every one of those
little balls is a
thought about
something that
needs to be done, a
decision that has to
be made, or a
problem that needs to
be solved.
A man has only 2
balls. They consume
all his thoughts, and
he sleeps like a baby.
Diencephalon
24
Consists of two parts:
 Thalamus
 The superior portion of the diencephalon
 Processes sensory information according to
importance
 Major relay station for sensory impulses to the
cerebrum
 Hypothalamus
 The inferior portion of the diencephalon
 Makes hormones which maintains the
homeostasis of the body
25
Figure 13.15
THALAMUS
26
 The THALAMUS functions to sort out all the
sensory information.
 It compares the input and determines what
information is worth sending to the cortex.
 Your body ignores most sensory information.
 Up until now, have you noticed the sound of the
air conditioner? It’s not important, so it goes
unnoticed.
 This area also compares information from the
right and left eyes for stereoscopic vision, and the
right and left ear to determine direction of sound.
Thalamus
27
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
28
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Pituitary
gland
HYPOTHALAMUS
29
 This small area exerts more control over autonomic




functioning than any other part.
Makes hormones which provide homeostatic
control over the body
It maintains homeostasis by controlling the autonomic
nervous reflexes, glucose and hormone levels.
It is also the main visceral (organ) control center, so it
controls body temperature, hunger and thirst, and
blood pressure by using hormones.
Functionally, the hypothalamus is part of the limbic system
(which is involved in memories and emotions), so that’s
why a painful memory can increase blood pressure, and a
good memory can lower blood pressure.
30
Figure 13.15
HYPOTHALAMUS
31
 The hypothalamus synthesizes and secretes
hormones, and these in turn stimulate or inhibit the
secretion of pituitary hormones.
 By secreting hormones, the hypothalamus controls
blood pressure, body temperature, hunger, thirst,
fatigue, sleep, autonomic nervous reflexes, and
circadian cycles.
• BRAIN STEM
– MIDBRAIN
– PONS
– MEDULLA OBLONGATA
32
Midbrain
33
 The top of the brain stem is the MIDBRAIN.
 It controls automatic behaviors (fight or flight)
 The midbrain also contains a pigmented area called the




substantia nigra.
The Substantia nigra is involved in addictions and in
initiating body movement.
The substantia nigra secretes the neurotransmitter
dopamine.
When the neurons in the substantia nigra become
damaged, dopamine levels decrease, causing Parkinson's
Disease.
Treatment is to replace the dopamine
Dopamine
34
 Remember that acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter that
functions to contract skeletal muscles?
 There are many other types of neurotransmitters as well.
One is called dopamine.
 Dopamine is the neurotransmitter that controls the flow of
information between various areas of the brain.
 Dopamine is lacking in Parkinson's Disease, in
which the person has muscular rigidity and tremors, so
they lose the ability to start movements. They need a
service dog to help them get out of a chair or to take a first
step. They also have a pill-rolling tremor at rest.
VIDEOS
35
 Parkinson’s gait
 Parkinson’s patient
Dopamine
36
 Dopamine plays a major role in the brain system that
is responsible for reward-driven learning. Every type
of reward that has been studied increases the level of
dopamine transmission in the brain, and a variety of
highly addictive drugs, including stimulants such as
cocaine and methamphetamine, act directly on the
dopamine system.
 There is evidence that people with extraverted
(reward-seeking) personality types tend to show
higher levels of dopamine activity than people with
introverted personalities.
Dopamine
37
 Several important diseases of the nervous system are
associated with dysfunctions of the dopamine system.
Parkinson's disease, an age-related degenerative condition
causing tremor and motor impairment, is caused by loss of
dopamine-secreting neurons in the substantia nigra.
 Schizophrenia has been shown to involve elevated levels of
dopamine activity in regions of the brain and decreased
levels of dopamine in other regions.
 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is also
believed to be associated with decreased dopamine activity.
Dopamine
38
 Because dopamine cannot cross the blood–brain
barrier, patients with diseases such as Parkinson's
disease are given L-DOPA (the precursor of
dopamine) because it crosses the blood-brain barrier
relatively easily.
 It is then converted by the body to dopamine.
VIDEOS
39
 Huntington’s chorea gait
 Huntington’s chorea patient
 Huntington’s disease is the opposite of Parkinson’s
disease. They have increased dopamine, and a
hyperkinetic gait, with writhing, dance-like
movements called chorea.
Endorphins
40
 From the Greek: word endo meaning "within" and
morphine, from Morpheus, the god of sleep.
 Endorphins are neurotransmitters made within our
body that are produced by the pituitary gland during
exercise, excitement, pain, acupuncture,
consumption of spicy food, love and orgasm, and
they resemble opiates in their abilities to produce
analgesia (pain suppression) and a feeling of wellbeing.
 They cause more dopamine to be released.

How drugs cause dopamine release: Mouse Party

http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/addiction/mouse/
Corpora Quadrigemina “Quadruplet bodies”
41
 They control visual and audio (hearing)




reflexes.
Throw something at your face, you blink = visual
reflex. Loud noise (BANG!) causing a startle, is the
audio reflex.
The two superior bodies are for eye blinking and fast
eye movements.
The two inferior bodies are for sound reflexes
The corpora quadrigemina are linked to the
midbrain.
Corpora
quadrigemina
42
Midbrain
Pons
43
Farther down the
brainstem is the
PONS, which
relays sensory
information
between the
cerebellum (for
balance) and
cerebrum
(conscious
awareness).
44
Spinal cord
Medulla
Oblongata
Pons
Midbrain
45
Midbrain
Pons
Medulla
Oblongata
Medulla Oblongata
46
 At the base of the brainstem is the MEDULLA




OBLONGATA, which contains the cardiac, respiratory,
vomiting and vasomotor (blood vessel constriction) centers.
It controls the nerves that effect the heart rate, blood
pressure, and breathing.
Damage here causes coma. Swelling from an injury causes
pressure, which can damage this area, which can cause a
coma.
Concussions cause nausea and a decrease in blood
pressure; patients with these symptoms need an MRI to see
if this is early signs of damage to medulla oblongata
Boxers who are knocked out can recover, but repeated
knock-outs can cause permanent brain damage.
What’s the difference in function between the
medulla oblongata and
the hypothalamus?
47
 The medulla oblongata controls blood pressure
directly (using nerves), and the hypothalamus
controls it indirectly (using hormones).
48
Reticular Formation
49
 The reticular
formation is a
group of cells
scattered
throughout the
brainstem.
 They play a role in
rousing and
maintaining
consciousness.
Melatonin in animals
50
 The pineal gland secretes melatonin. Don’t confuse




that with the skin pigment melanin.
Melatonin is a hormone found in animals, plants,
and microbes.
In animals, circulating levels of melatonin vary in a
daily or seasonal cycles, thereby allowing the
circadian rhythms of several biological functions.
It allows reptiles to change the color of their skin
The change in duration of secretion also serves as a
biological signal for seasonal reproduction, behavior,
coat growth, and camouflage coloring in animals.
Melatonin
51
 Another timekeeping function of melatonin is its role
in orchestrating seasonal changes. For example, it
plays a major part in signaling the body of animals to
hibernate. In this capacity, it is believed that
melatonin is instrumental in causing tissues to shift
into a state of metabolic inactivity during
hibernation. This capability has led some
researchers to propose that melatonin might be able
to induce a hibernation-like state and donor organs
prior to transplantation in order to prolong their
shelf life.
Melatonin
52
 In seasonally reproducing animals, melatonin plays a part in
directing the reproductive system to become inactive.
Because of this ability to regulate seasonal activities, there has
been interest in the role that melatonin might play in seasonal
affective disorder (SAD), which makes some people depressed
in the winter. The present evidence indicates that the short
days of winter cause excess melatonin to be produced in
individuals susceptible to this disorder. It appears that in
people with SAD, the melatonin system does not respond to
artificial lighting, while in unaffected people the system ceases
production of melatonin in response to artificial lighting.
Interestingly, in many people with SAD, special bright lights
that mimic sunlight are effective in shutting down the
melatonin and alleviating depression.
Melatonin in humans
53
 In humans, melatonin helps us sleep. Infants' melatonin




levels become regular in about the third month after birth,
so they sleep through the night better.
Production of melatonin by the pineal gland is
inhibited by light and permitted by darkness.
Secretion peaks in the middle of the night, with normal
variations in timing according to an individual's
chronotype.
A chronotype is an attribute reflecting at what time of the
day their physical functions (hormone level, body
temperature, cognitive faculties, eating and sleeping) are
active, change, or reach a certain level.
Are you a morning person or a night owl?
Melatonin
54
 One of the clearest effects of melatonin is the ability to
reset the body's internal clock for blind people or those
suffering from jet lag or in night shift workers.
Melatonin administered in the afternoon shifts the sleep
cycle so that people wake up and go to sleep earlier.
Melatonin given in the morning causes people to wake up
and go to sleep later. This capability of melatonin to shift
the body's internal clock will likely find increasing use in
the future as travel for business and pleasure become
more international. It should also be especially useful in
sports where teams playing in international competitions
now have to arrive a week before an event in order for
there internal rhythms to shift naturally so they can play
at their best.
Melatonin
55
 Although melatonin is widely advertised as a sleep aid, there
is controversy among scientists about what role it plays in
sleep it does not appear to work like a sleeping pill that simply
induces sleep, rather it seems to produce a physiological bias
toward sleep. As people get older, the amount of melatonin
they produce at night decreases, while insomnia and other
sleep problems increase. Alzheimer's patients have less
melatonin than normal. Fortunately, a few studies have
already shown that melatonin treatment can cause significant
improvements in the sleep quality of both elderly insomniacs
and Alzheimer's patients. If melatonin can be used to
reestablish more normal sleep patterns in Alzheimer's
patients, it should help delay their institutionalization and
reduce the psychological, physical, and monetary burden of
this devastating disease.
Other effects of melatonin
56
 Melatonin stimulates the immune system
 There is new research being done on giving melatonin to
people with autoimmune diseases, such as ulcerative colitis.
 It is an antioxidant, protecting mitochondrial DNA
 It increases REM sleep time (dreaming)
 It causes the onset of puberty
 Melatonin is mainly secreted by the pineal body.
PINEAL BODY (Pineal gland)
57
 The PINEAL BODY secretes melatonin.
 How much it secretes depends on the sensory
information it receives from the eyes about how
many hours of daylight are present.
 The amount of melatonin secreted and circulating
in the blood then determines the circadian
rhythm, or the 24-hour biological clock (cycles
influenced by light).
 Therefore, the pineal body detects the number of
hours of light and dark, and sets the body’s 24hour clock.
Thalamus
Pineal body
58
59
Pineal body
JET LAG
60
 When you get jet lag, it’s because the information
the pineal gland has been getting doesn’t match
with where you are now.
 You can help yourself get over jet lag by being
outdoors in the daylight and being indoors in a
dark room at night, and the pineal gland will reset
the clock.
Chronic Insomnia
61
 First eliminate caffeine, then modify the diet (no
sugars) and increase exercise.
 If that does not work, try Benadryl. It is an
antihistamine, but its side-effect is drowsiness. It is
good because it does not interfere with REM sleep
and it is not addictive. Some try melatonin as well.
 Prescription sleep meds can be addictive and they
interfere with REM sleep, so you don’t feel rested.
 Ambien (a prescription sleep med) can cause people
to sleep walk, and even drive in their sleep!
CEREBELLUM
62
 The cerebellum is the second largest portion of the
brain, is responsible for balance and muscle
coordination, and is a comparator.
CEREBELLUM
63
 The cerebellum functions as a comparator.
Action potentials from the cerebral motor cortex
descend into the spinal cord to move the muscles.
 There are branches that are sent to the cerebellum to
give it information on the intended movement.
 At the same time, the cerebellum receives
information from proprioreception neurons
(sensory, tell what position each body part is in).
 The cerebellum compares all this information to
allow smooth movements. That is why it is called a
comparator.
64
Cerebellar Function Evaluation
65
 Finger to nose
 Heel to shin
 Ataxic gait of alcoholism
 Tandem gait (walk straight line)
FUNCTIONAL REGIONS
66
 A. SENSORY AREAS
 B. MOTOR AREAS
 C. HIGHER FUNCTIONS
CORTEX AND ASSOCIATION AREAS
67
 Each area of the sensory area of the brain has a
region where the sensory information comes in, and
another area where the information is understood.
 The area where the information comes in is a
cortex, and the area where it is understood is the
association area.
 Therefore, there will be a visual cortex and
association area, an auditory cortex and association
area, and a somatic (sense of touch) cortex and
association area, and a gustatory (taste) cortex and
association area. There is also a motor cortex and
association area.
Functional and Structural Areas of the
Cerebral Cortex
68
Figure 13.11a
Dyslexia
69
 Dyslexia is a very broad term defining a learning disability
that impairs a person's fluency or comprehension accuracy
in being able to read, and which can manifest itself as a
difficulty with phonological awareness (speaking properly),
phonological decoding (understanding speech),
orthographic coding (writing properly and reading
properly), auditory short-term memory, or rapid naming.
 Dyslexia is distinct from reading difficulties resulting from
other causes, such as a non-neurological deficiency with
vision or hearing, or from poor or inadequate reading
instruction. Dyslexia affects 5-10 % of the population.
Dyslexia
70
 There are three proposed cognitive subtypes of dyslexia:
auditory, visual and attentional.
 Dyslexia is the most common learning disability.
Researchers at MIT found that people with dyslexia
exhibited impaired voice-recognition abilities.
 Adult dyslexics can read with good comprehension, but
they tend to read more slowly than non-dyslexics and
perform more poorly at spelling and nonsense word
reading, a measure of phonological awareness. Dyslexia
and IQ are not interrelated.
71
FUNCTIONAL REGIONS
72
 A. SENSORY AREAS
 B. MOTOR AREAS
 C. HIGHER FUNCTIONS
SENSORY AREAS
73
 PRIMARY SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX (Somatic = touch)
 SOMATOSENSORY ASSOCIATION AREA
 PRIMARY VISUAL CORTEX
 VISUAL ASSOCIATION AREA
 PRIMARY AUDITORY CORTEX
 AUDITORY ASSOCIATION AREA
 PRIMARY GUSTATORY CORTEX (sense of taste)
 GUSTATORY ASSOCIATION AREA
SOMATOSENSORY AREAS
74
1. Primary somatosensory cortex
2. Somatosensory association area
The primary somatosensory cortex receives signals for
touch and pressure.
The somatosensory
association area interprets the
sensation. When I put my
hand in my pocket, I know
(gnosis) that is my keys I am
feeling.
VIDEO
1
2
VISUAL AREAS
75
1. Primary visual cortex
2. Visual association area
The primary visual cortex receives signals from the
optic nerves.
The visual association area
interprets the signals. When I
look at my keys, I can identify
them as keys.
2
1
VISUAL ASSOCIATION AREA
76
Within the visual association area is a region called Brodmann
areas 18 +19.
Damage to this area results in an inability to recognize what
one sees.
The person can see a chair in their way, move around it, but
they can’t identify the object as a chair.
Some people with this damage can’t distinguish one person
from another because they can’t recognize their faces.
For more information on these types of brain damages, there’s
a book called The Man Who Mistook his Wife for a Hat.
HEARING AREAS
77
1. Primary auditory cortex
2. Auditory association area
The primary auditory cortex receives signals from the
ear.
The auditory association area
interprets the signals. When I
hear a sound, I can tell you
what it is that I am hearing.
1
2
AUDITORY AREA
78
The auditory area is where language is formed.
Language is natural to humans.
A group of deaf children in South America were
found to have created their own language, using
nouns, verbs, pronouns, and adjectives, even
though no one there knew any sign language to
teach them.
There are certain strokes that cause injury to this
area, and the person can’t use adjectives, but
everything else is normal!
Auditory Association Area
• The auditory association area contains two special regions
• BROCA'S AREA is a region of the brain that allows for speech.
– Injury (stroke) in this location causes impairment of
speaking certain words. They know what they want to say,
they just cannot get the words out. Not being able to
speak at all is called aphasia.
• WERNICKE’S AREA is the region of the brain that allows
understanding of words.
• It does not affect a person’s speech.
• They can say what they want to, but
they cannot comprehend
someone else’s speech.
79
Fun Fact
80
 Deaf people are not using their auditory cortex and
association area, but that region of the brain is not
left inactive. Signals from the optic nerve branch out
and synapse there, and they use that area of the
brain to develop better peripheral vision.
 Blind people are not using their visual cortex and
association area, so that region of the brain is used to
develop more fine connections for their sense of
touch. As they learn to read Braille, they can discern
the small bumps of print with their fingers better
than a sighted person.
Gustatory Cortex and Association Area
81
 The gustatory cortex
and association area
are located on the
insula (“insulated”).
 Neurons there
respond to
sweetness, saltiness,
bitterness, and
sourness, and they
code the intensity of
the taste stimulus.
82
FUNCTIONAL REGIONS
83
 A. SENSORY AREAS
 B. MOTOR AREAS
 C. HIGHER FUNCTIONS
MOTOR AREAS
84
 PRIMARY MOTOR CORTEX
 PRIMARY MOTOR ASSOCIATION AREA
MOTOR AREAS
85
 1. PRIMARY MOTOR CORTEX
 2. PRIMARY MOTOR ASSOCIATION AREA
2
1
PRIMARY MOTOR CORTEX
86
Contains UPPER MOTOR NEURONS, which
extend down the spinal cord and synapse on
LOWER MOTOR NEURONS which then leave
the spinal cord to innervate every muscle and gland.
A motor unit is a neuron and all of the muscle fibers it
connects to.
Some muscles have more motor units than others
(hands, eyes, etc).
Upper and Lower Motor Neurons
87
Lower motor neuron is here. The upper
motor neuron comes down from the brain
and synapses on this neuron.
Figure 12.11
PRIMARY MOTOR ASSOCIATION AREA
88
A. Planning movement: This is when you plan
to reach for a new item.
You have not rehearsed it, but you know to extend
your forearms, lift, etc.
A signal is sent to the primary motor cortex to
turn on specific motor units to do that.
Damage from a stroke= loose function to that
area, but you can compensate by using other
muscles, and re-learn that movement.
PRIMARY MOTOR ASSOCIATION AREA
89
B. Learned motor skills: these are preprogrammed
skills, like when you know how to type or swing a golf
club. You practiced it so often, it’s now automatic.

When someone asks you how to spell a word, but you
can’t do it until you write it out, it’s because that
memory is now a motor skill.

The same happens when you know how to tie your
own shoelace or necktie, but can’t easily teach
someone else how to do it. It initially is learned by
repetition.

Then, to do it later triggers a series of information
which turns on those muscles in the right order.
Fun Fact
90
 Use your right foot to draw a clockwise circle in the
air.
 While keeping your foot going, draw the number “6”
in the air with your hand.
 Did your foot start moving counter-clockwise?
Pre-Central Gyrus
91
Pre-Central Gyrus
92
 Within the primary motor area of the brain, there is a structure called




the pre-central gyrus which contains a precise map of the different
body parts.
This map is called a motor homunculus (Latin: little man)
All the neurons that innervate the lips would have their cell bodies in
one particular region in this area. All the neurons that innervate the
hands have their cell bodies in this area. All those that innervate the
back have their cell bodies here.
However, we don’t have as many neurons innervating the back as we do
for the lips and hands.
The homunculus is drawn to represent how many neuron cell bodies we
have that innervate each region of our body.
93
Pre-Central Gyrus
94
 Not all body parts are equally represented by cell density in
the motor area in proportion to their size in the body.
 Lips, parts of the face and hands are drawn large because
there are many cells in the motor area that innervate those
regions of the body.
 The face region of the homunculus is large representing
many neurons, so we can have many facial expressions. The
hands and tongue are large, indicating that we have many
fine motor skills in those areas as well.
 There is also a somatosensory homunculus.
Depiction of the
motor homunculus
95
Depiction of the
sensory homunculus
96
Partial Brain Removal for Boy Suffering Seizures
• http://fxn.ws/ZG8SZw
• Medication controls epileptic seizures in about
45 percent of patients.
97
• But Spike continued to have 70 seizures a day. He then tried
alternative treatments – including the ketogenic diet, which is
a low-carb, high-fat diet – so precise, every ingredient has to
be measured to a tenth of a gram.
• At just 4 years old, a typical meal for Spike included heavy
cream, heavy butter, a tiny piece of meat and a couple of
blueberries.
• Spike then had his right frontal lobe removed – the part of the
brain responsible for attention span and executive function.
• “We do this type of procedure on 50 to 60 patients a year,” Dr.
Lara Jehi, lead author of the study and director of research at
the Cleveland Clinic Epilepsy Center.
• Her study looked at 158 patients over a 15 year period, and
found that epileptic patients who opt to have frontal lobe
surgery have an 80 percent chance of living seizure-free for
the rest of their lives.
98
• The part of Spike’s brain causing the seizures
was considered dead, and not doing him any
good. There was a chance he could have
temporary paralysis and/or attention deficit
issues, or he might be slower to learn things –
but in the end, he would eventually recover all
normal function.
• Spike, who is now 6. He can play football or
kickbox. These days, he’s a regular little boy
who enjoys hiking.
99
FUNCTIONAL REGIONS
100
 A. SENSORY AREAS
 B. MOTOR AREAS
 C. HIGHER FUNCTIONS
 For a great video of a neurologist describing what it felt like
when she had a stroke:
How it feels to have a stroke: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UyyjU8fzEYU
HIGHER FUNCTIONS
101
1. PLANNING AND JUDGMENT
2. MEMORY
3. EMOTIONS
102
If you can read this you have a strong mind:
103
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PLANNING AND JUDGMENT
104
 This is coordinated by the frontal lobe: How much
time do you need to be ready for the test? This is
calculated by the frontal lobe.
 Damage to the frontal lobe causes people to become
docile and do what they are told.
 1930’s when people were overly aggressive,
they did a frontal lobotomy by going up the
eyelid, crack through the skull, and stirring up the
brain. The problem is that it permanently
altered their personalities.
 Stopped in 1960’s; we do it with drugs now
(Ritalin).
105
PLANNING AND JUDGMENT
106
 There was a 16 year old rebel who shot himself in the head,
but the bullet went too far forward, and he gave himself a
lobotomy and his personality improved! Don’t try this at
home.
 Ritalin suppresses CNS in children, stimulates it in adults,
so it is a high theft item.
 In a criminal psych ward, an inmate with a lobotomy got
his hand caught in the electric door, and while his hand was
dangling half off, a nurse asked him if it hurt, and he just
calmly said, “Yes, quite a lot.” No emotion.
 Remember, when you kill a neuron, it does not regenerate;
it’s gone forever.
MEMORY: HIPPOCAMPUS
107
 We talked about motor memory. You can also
have memory of events.
 This is controlled by the HIPPOCAMPUS (“sea
horse”; that’s its shape). The hippocampus plays a
major role in storing and retrieving memories.
 But memories are not stored there or in any other
single site in the brain. They are stored throughout
the brain, especially in the cerebral cortex.
Memory: Hippocampus
108
Amygdala
Hippocampus
109
Amygdala
110
 The amygdala functions to take new memories and
store them, making them long-term memories.
 One man, who had severe epilepsy, had his amygdala
removed. His seizures stopped, but he developed
anterograde amnesia and could no longer remember
anything new.
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amygdala
Amygdala
111
 The amygdala functions in emotional and social
responses.
 If all your friends remember an event differently
than you do (who held the umbrella that day? They
say it was you, but you remember it was Susan), you
will tend to change what you believe is right (I guess
it must have been me holding the umbrella, since
everyone else says it was me).
 That is generating a false memory due to social
pressure.
Amygdala
112
 The amygdala is like a bouncer at a nightclub.
 It determines what information is important enough
to go into long term storage by allowing it to go
through the hippocampus.
 The memories that carry emotional weight are
allowed in.
 These are the memories shape our identity.
 Social pressure will cause us to change our memories
to conform, so social pressure shapes who we are.
Amygdala
113
 When you first experience a traumatic event, if you
try to minimize the strong emotions you feel, it will
not go into long term memory to continue to haunt
you.
 For example, if someone does something that
bothers you, try to forget it and do not dwell on it,
otherwise it will go into long term memory.
 If you rehearse the event over and over, you will even
start dreaming about it.
 The average person spends about 6 years dreaming.
Amygdala
114
 Making a new memory is like writing a word on
paper with an ink pen. At first, the ink is wet (the
memory is fresh) and you can smear it with your
thumb so you can’t read the word (don’t dwell on the
memory and it will not become a firm memory).
 But once the ink is dry (the memory is stored), the
memory can be retrieved.
 Every time you recall a memory, it is like tracing over
the old word in fresh ink. It becomes bolder,
stronger, easier to read.
Amygdala
115
 When you want to remember something, go over and




over it throughout the day, every day.
If it is a painful memory, write it down and read it
out loud every day while in a relaxed environment,
followed by a logical discussion of the event.
Try to eliminate the emotional distress of the
memory during this time.
That will retrain your brain so it does not recall the
event as being so emotionally disturbing.
Therefore, it will not cause as many bad dreams.
What happens in my brain when I can't recall
something I know?
116





A Neural Network (computer software) is just a simple model of the brain - NN is
composed of interconnected neurons with synapses (software model artifacts.)
Each neuron is an adder with a threshold, and each synapse has a weight. Both the
threshold and the weight holds a small unit of information (could be digital oranalog.)
The entire NN has a certain information capacity, and used wisely (as in VOT (voice to
text) or OCR (optical character recognition)) they do quite a job!
However, NN theory (and practice) shows that when this capacity has been not used and
retrieved more than 11% of the time while learning, the network starts ' forgetting!'
What you memorize today goes into short term memory and may not be in your memory
tomorrow. To get short term memory to convert into long term memory, you need to let
your brain know that information is important by retrieving the information frequently.
In other words, you need to go over and over the same information several times a day,
every day, even after you know it. If you wait a week before you go over it again, some of
it will be lost.
Short term memory also flies out of your head under stress, such as during
an exam. It is better to study daily rather that do a marathon study session
on the weekends.
Word of the Day
117
 Hypermnesia: abnormally vivid or complete memory or
recall of the past.
 Perhaps the most famous individual to exhibit hypermnesia
was a Russian man known as "S," whose amazing
photographic memory was studied for 30 years by a
psychologist in the early part of the 20th century.
 "Hypermnesia" sometimes refers to cases like that of "S,"
but it can also refer to specific instances of heightened
memory (such as those brought on by trauma or hypnosis)
experienced by people whose memory abilities are
unremarkable under ordinary circumstances.
Word of the Day
118
 The word "hypermnesia," which has been with us
since at least 1882, was created in New Latin as the
combination of "hyper-" (meaning "beyond" or
"super") and "-mnesia" (to remember).
 It ultimately derives from the Greek word
"mnasthai," meaning "to remember."
Memory
119
 Memory consists of four processes
 Encoding: during exposure to new thing
 Consolidation: short-term memory forms; retained for a few
seconds to a few days. The average person can only remember
about 7 new things at a time in a few minutes. When new
information is presented, old information in short term
memory is eliminated. If temporal lobe is damaged,
consolidation may not occur and the person only remembers
things learned in the last few minutes plus things stored in
long-term memory, before the injury.
 Storage: long-term memory forms for a few days to
permanently, depending on how often it is retrieved and used.
 Retrieval: using the stored information
Memory
120
To convert short-term memory into long-term
memory, you should learn things in a variety of
ways:
 Prepare
 Listen
 Write notes
 Review daily
 Watch videos
 Do labs
 This allows easy access to that information again
by going through the hippocampus.
MEMORY
121
 The reason we sleep is to allow our brains to form memories.
 Anything with a strong emotional attachment will form a stronger
memory during the sleep process.
 Whatever you are afraid of during the day, you will dream about more,
and remember more.
 You will have more nightmares if you watch a disturbing TV show
before going to bed. If you have nightmares about your personal life,
stop dwelling on those things during the day! Resolve your conflicts
while you are awake, and you will sleep better.
 The best way to remember what you study is to go over it before going
to bed. Study with fear and you will remember it more!
122
Mammillary Bodies
123
 A pair of small round bodies at the anterior end of
the fornix
 Part of the diencephalon; they form part of the
limbic system.
 They relay information (recognition memory) from
the hippocampus. They also add the element of smell
to memories.
 Damage to the mammillary bodies due to thiamine
deficiency (vit B1) or alcohol causes WernickeKorsakoff syndrome (anterograde amnesia)
Memory: Hippocampus
124
Amygdala
Hippocampus
Sheep brain
Fornix
125
mammillary
body
126
Fornix
mammillary body
127
Korsakoff syndrome
128
 Sergei Korsakoff (1854–1900), a Russian neuropsychiatrist
 ‘Korsakoff syndrome’ refers to a group of symptoms—known as
amnesic syndrome—which includes inattentiveness, memory defect for
recent events, retrograde amnesia and other disorders of recall and
recognition, and disorientation in time, place, and situation.
 The Korsakoff syndrome develops most often in chronic alcoholics who
fail to take an adequate diet. This may cause an acute deficiency of
thiamine (vitamin B1). When or if the patient recovers he will probably
be left with the typical features of the Korsakoff syndrome.
 The memory defect is revealed in the difficulty the patient shows in
finding his way about, his forgetfulness in simple matters, and
especially his failure to retain information.
 Also, presented with an object he has been shown a few minutes before,
he tends to respond to it as not identical or as in some manner
changed.
Fornix
129
 Carries signals from the mammillary bodies to the
rest of the hippocampus.
130
ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA
131
 Damage to the mammillary bodies or hippocampus; they
remember things before the injury occurred, but all new
information is lost within minutes.
 Nemo’s fish friend, Dori, has this type of amnesia.
 You can get around it by motor memory. Give an amnesiac
a new puzzle; they’ll do it in 30 mins. The next day, they
don’t recognize the puzzle, but they do it in 20 mins, the
next day in 10. Therefore, they are learning by motor
memory. They can learn their route from home to the
market by repetition. But they can’t make a detour, and if
anything bumps them off track, they’ll be lost.
132
RETROGRADE AMNESIA
133
 Retrograde amnesia is a form of amnesia where




someone is unable to recall events that occurred before the
development of the amnesia.
Retrograde amnesia is caused by trauma that results in
brain injury.
Retrograde amnesia is often temporally graded, meaning
that remote memories are more easily accessible than
events occurring just prior to the trauma.
Events nearest in time to the event that caused memory loss
may never be recovered.
They can remember new things.
134
FUN FACTS
• Bees tell other members of the hive where food is by doing a
special dance that relays distance and direction. Octopus have the
ability to sort out complex problems on their own
• A dolphin doesn’t need to see to catch a meal. It sends out sound
waves which bounce back and create a 3D ultrasound picture of
it, even in complete darkness. A dolphin’s brain in relation to its
body is larger than that of a chimpanzee or great ape.
• Dolphins are one of the most intelligent mammals; they've
learned to sleep using only half their brains. While one half rests,
the other remains alert and continues the respiratory process,
without interruptions.
• The brain of a roach is located in its body, and if by accident
(natural or human) it should lose its head, it can live up to nine
days completely decapitated. It dies from starvation.
135
STROKES
136
 A hemorrhage (broken blood vessel) in the
brain or a blood clot deprives an area of the
brain of oxygen.
 This is called a stroke.
 It is one of the most likely causes of amnesia.
 Amnesia that is caused by a blow to the head is not
cured by a second blow!
Another problem with memory:
ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE
137
 Dementia is a symptom, not a disease. Dementia is
loss of memory.
 Alzheimer’s disease is the most common form of
dementia.
 About 10% of people over the age of 65 and 50% of
people over the age 85 suffer from it.
 It is irreversible, incurable, and fatal (6th leading
cause of death in the USA, surpassing diabetes). The
person dies because they can no longer eat, swallow,
etc. There are treatments to delay symptoms.
Normal Brain vs. Alzheimer’s
138
Alzheimer’s Disease vs. other dementia
139
 Alzheimer's disease is typically a slowly progressive
disorder that involves loss of memory for recent
information (short-term memory) and one or more
other abilities, such as speech and language,
personality, decision-making and judgment or
awareness and ability to interact with the
environment.
 Abilities that are typically not impaired in a patient
with Alzheimer's disease include memory for
information of long ago (long-term memory), vision,
ability to feel things and muscle strength.
Memory
140
 Even when these memory systems are working
well, some memories will be stored or recalled
more easily than others.
 A memory with a strong emotional component,
such as where you were on September 11, 2001,
will likely be retained for the rest of your life.
 Information is also more likely to be stored
properly when it is recognized as important.
Memory
141
 New information is also more likely to be retained and




recalled if it is related to information that is already stored.
The links between the new and old information serve as
retrieval clues.
The more numerous the links and the stronger the
associations, the more accessible and clear the memory will
be.
However, if the new information is too similar or two
different from an existing memory, it may be discarded.
Forging new memories depends in large part on staying
interested, active, and alert.
142
Learning new things
143
 It’s hard to learn anything brand new; you have to
either use repetition or do something to put the new
information in your head by associating it with
something you are already familiar with.
 That’s why mnemonics are good. The word
“supinate” was a brand new word, but it sounds like
“soup”, and its motion looks like you’re holding a
bowl of soup, so it’s easy now to remember.
Learning new things
144
 If the word “cerebrum” is a brand new word, it
sounds like “Sir read broom”, which are words you
already know and can visualize. Think of Harry
Potter asking a wizard to read the strange words on
his new broom: “Sir read broom”, and the wizard
scratches his brain (cerebrum) as he tries to read
the words. Now it’s easy to remember because you
can relate it to something you already know and
can picture.
145
IMPLANTED MEMORY
146
 When the Challenger shuttle exploded in the
1980’s, a freshman college professor told his
students to write down where they were and what
they were doing when they heard about it.
 Four years later, he asked them again. 65%
answered the same way, but 35% remembered it
completely differently, but the students insisted
they were right.
IMPLANTED MEMORY
147
 Another college professor found all the freshmen students with older




siblings at the college, and he told the older siblings to tell this story
to their younger siblings:
“When you were 5, we went to a fancy restaurant to celebrate mom’s
birthday, and you spilled something on her dress and you were really
embarrassed.”
A few weeks later, the professor asked the freshmen to write down a
story about anything embarrassing that happened to them when they
were five, and to include all the details they remembered.
The freshmen recounted the fake story as though it was real because
they thought they remembered it.
They also included details that they were not told, such as the name
of the restaurant, the color of the dress, and what was spilled. The
freshmen filled in the story to make a complete memory.
MEMORY LAPSES
148
 More likely to occur when a person is tired, sick,
distracted, or under stress.
 People who are depressed are also more likely to
have memory problems.
 The brain contains about 100 billion neurons.
Only a few neurons die over a person's lifetime, but
they do shrink. This shrinkage may partially
explain why mental functioning slows down in
middle and older age.
Attention Deficit Disorder
149
Memory aids
150
Place all commonly lost items in a designated spot.
Write things down
Concentrate and relax
Get plenty of sleep
Say words out loud: saying” I have turned off the stove” after you
have done so will give you a verbal reminder when you later charged
recall whether the stove is still on. Incorporating people’s names into
the conversation immediately after you have met them serves the
same purpose.
 Use memory aids: use a pocket notepad, personal digital assistant,
wristwatch alarm, or voice recorder to help you remember what you
need to do more to keep track of information.





Memory aids
151
 Use visual images: when learning new information, such as a
persons name, create a visual image in your mind to make the
information more vivid and more memorable. If you have just been
introduced to Mr. Hackman, visualize him hacking his way through a
dense jungle with a machete.
 Group items using mnemonics: when memorizing lists, names,
addresses, and so on, alphabetize them or group them into an
acronym -- a word made from the first letter of a series of words.
You could also use the first letter of each word to create new words to
form sentences or phrase. You can use rhymes or create a story that
connects each element to be remembered. The more compact or
meaningful the mnemonic, the easier it will be to remember the
information.
EMOTIONS: LIMBIC SYSTEM
152
 The prefrontal lobe and the hippocampus are part of a
system of structures in the brain.
 The LIMBIC SYSTEM also includes the olfactory nerves
(sense of smell). Therefore, memory, emotion, and smell
are linked.
 Crayolas are created today with the same old waxy scent
because it reminds people of their happy times in
childhood.
The Limbic System
(everything in orange)
153
Figure 13.23
Limbic System
154
 The limbic system includes the olfactory cortex
(sense of smell), and portions of the diencephalon
and cerebrum
 It influences emotions, motivations, and mood
 It initiates responses necessary for survival, such as
hunger and thirst.
MENINGES
• These are tissues that cover the entire CNS.
They are three layers that serve to protect and
cushion the brain.
155
Meninges
156
1. DURA MATER is the thickest and most superficial
of the meninges.
2. ARACHNOID MATER is the middle layer and is not
nearly as dense. It also does not go down into the sulci, it
only covers over the top of the gyri.
3. PIA MATER is the thin, shiny layer that DOES follow the
brain surface into the sulci.
 SUBDURAL SPACE is between the dura mater and the
arachnoid mater. It has the blue, venous blood.
 The SUBARACHNOID SPACE is between the arachnoid
and pia mater, and is filled with CEREBRAL SPINAL
FLUID (CSF).
1. DURA MATER (“Tough mother”)
157
Dense regular connective tissue.
It consists of two layers.
Under the skull is the first layer of dura mater, called the
PERIOSTEAL LAYER. Just under this is the second
layer, called the MENINGEAL LAYER. There are these
two layers everywhere except around the spinal cord, where
it’s just one layer, the meningeal layer of the dura mater; no
periosteal layer.
Between the meningeal and periosteal layers of the dura
mater are DURAL SINUSES, which are filled with venous
blood which is drained from the brain.
Dural sinus and subarachnoid space
158
Clinical Significance
159
 In the spinal cord, between L3 and L4, a doctor can
inject anesthetic above the dura mater, so only the
nerves there are affected. What is that called?
Epidural.
 The dura and arachnoid mater both have lots of
blood vessels, which might rupture in an injury,
called a SUBDURAL or SUBARACHNOID
HEMORRHAGE, which is potentially fatal.
Blood accumulates and squeezes the brain. When
the blood clots, it is called a hematoma.
 Treatment = drill a hole, preferably before it clots.
VENTRICLES OF THE BRAIN
160
 The brain contains hollow spaces called ventricles, which are filled
with CSF. They are extensive. The names are simple.
 LATERAL VENTRICLE is the largest, extends throughout the
cerebrum.
 THIRD VENTRICLE: in a sheep, it forms a figure “3” under the
fornix and around the corpora quadrigemina. In a human model, it
looks like a cavity between the fornix and a red arch.
 FOURTH VENTRICLE is at the base of the cerebellum; it is
continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord, and also with
the subarachnoid space.
 CEREBRAL AQUEDUCT: connects the 3rd and 4th ventricles.
The used CSF drains out of the brain at the aqueduct and returns
to the blood circulation.
The ventricles, subarachnoid space , and cerebral aqueduct
are filled with CSF. The subdural space is NOT filled with
CSF; it is filled with venous blood.
VENTRICLES OF THE BRAIN (blue)
161b
Figure 13.6a,
162
Fornix
3rd ventricle
mammillary body
163
Cerebral aqueduct
Fourth ventricle
Lateral ventricle
Sheep brain
Third ventricle
(forms a
number “3”)
Lateral ventricle
164
Fourth ventricle
Cerebral aqueduct
CerebroSpinal Fluid (CSF)
165
 CSF is similar to plasma because it is derived from
plasma.
 CSF is made in the ventricles by a group of
capillaries called the CHOROID PLEXUS.
 The choroid plexus capillaries have holes that allow
the blood plasma to leak into the subarachnoid
space. It is now called cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
Dural sinus and subarachnoid
space
166
CerebroSpinal Fluid (CSF)
167
 The CSF that has been depleted of its nutrients is
absorbed back into the blood through the
ARACHOID GRANULATIONS.
 Arachnoid granulations are small protrusions of the
arachnoid mater (the thin second layer covering the brain)
through the dura mater (the thick outer layer).
 They protrude into the venous sinuses of the brain, and
allow cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) to enter the brain, and
circulate.
 800ml of CSF is made per day, but there is actually only 150
ml there because the extra is continually removed from the
brain and returned to the bloodstream.
FUNCTION OF FLUID-FILLED VENTRICLES
168
 1. Allows the brain to float. The brain has the
consistency of Jell-O, and weighs three pounds. Its
weight would crush the spinal cord if it didn’t float.
 2. It cushions. In sudden movement, like riding a
bike into a tree, and hitting the head on the tree,
the brain hits inside the skull in the front, and then
in recoil it hits the back of the skull = closed head
injury, not necessarily with a fracture.
 3. Acts as the lymphatic system of the brain (it
doesn’t have one).
Protection of the Brain – Cerebrospinal
Fluid (CSF)
169
Figure 13.27b
PROBLEMS WITH MENINGES
170
 HYDROCEPHALY is accumulation of CSF inside the
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ventricles.
It is usually congenital, caused by a blockage of the cerebral
aqueduct. The CSF is made but can’t leave, and the brain
gets expanded.
The skull bones in a newborn can expand, so
although it CAN damage the brain, it does NOT
always cause mental retardation if it is treated
early enough. The head becomes enlarged.
Treatment is to put in a tube to drain it.
Hydrocephaly in adults can be caused by a tumor, and since
the skull no longer expands, it’s very dangerous.
HYDROCEPHALY
171
HYDROCEPHALY
172
MENINGITIS
173
 Meningitis is inflammation of the meninges.
 Can be caused from bacteria (can be fatal in 24 hours) or virus (fatal
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in a week or more) or fungi (fatal in a week or so). It kills 3 people in
10 who get it.
The main symptom is a headache, so when this occurs in an infant,
they can’t say where they hurt.
So when an infant presents with a high fever of 104˚F with no other
symptoms, they might test for meningitis, because if they miss it, it’s
fatal.
The test is a SPINAL TAP, where a needle is inserted between L4
and L5 because that is below the level of the spinal cord.
They draw the CSF to look at. If it’s cloudy or bloody, it’s usually
meningitis. Untreated meningitis can lead to this next one:
ENCEPHALITIS
174
 This is inflammation of the brain.
 It can be caused by mosquito-borne protozoa, or
bacteria.
 Why is infection of the brain so dangerous? The
swelling crushes the brain.
 Any injury may lead to brain swelling.
 Treatment for swelling of the brain from injury or
infection is to remove a piece of the skull bone to
allow the swelling.
Luke’s Story
http://www.caringbridge.org/visit/lukefallon
175
 Luke was hit in a football game (freshman at high school) and complaining of a
severe headache he limped off the field and as soon as they took off his helmet
he began seizing, so he was rushed to Long Beach Memorial (he was playing at
Los Alamitos HS) and once wheeled into the emergency room the neuro
surgeon happened to be in there and one look at Luke and they prepped the OR
and when they opened his head up blood shot 15 feet in the air. Come to
discover he had an arachnoid cyst which had burst/torn, most likely from the
impact of the hit (shows you how brutal football can be). The neuro surgeon
thinks the arachnoid cyst was congenital and may have never presented in
Luke’s life but for something like this happening to him. Anyways he was in
ICU for about a week and then released to the rehab but had developed an
infection (not MRSA but something pretty awful) and so back to the OR to
remove the infected bone flap and then he was on antibiotic for about 6 weeks
(he had a PICC line in so he could go home) but was supposed to wear a helmet
until they replaced the bone flap with his prosthetic (but of course he didn’t)
and so had his 3rd surgery Dec 30th and then made an amazing recovery, after
months of speech, physical and occupational therapy he appears fully
recovered.
176
177
Luke’s Story
http://www.caringbridge.org/visit/lukefallon
178
 I actually think he was suffering from a concussion he had received in practice
prior to the game, because he had been complaining of headaches a week prior
so much so I took him into the pediatrician but she said to keep an eye on
him. Ironically that week he had his physical that is required for playing sports
at high school…so 2 doctors visits and nothing uncovered a problem, which
goes to show you how much medicine is just luck! Anyway, we are just thankful
that he is alive and well…a true miracle child. His blow by blow story can be
viewed atwww.caringbridge.org
 His name is Luke Fallon and you can see a log of events Have to say the nursing
staff in the ICU blew my away…amazing people, completely different level of
care than the regular rehab Millers Children’s’ Hospital offered, but that’s as it
should be.
179
180
181
182
183
Meningioma
184
MRI of Meningioma
185
186
MRI of Meningioma, post-op
188
Aging
189
Aging affects the nervous system
 Decline in sensory functions
 Decline in motor functions
 Decline in short-term memory
 Insomnia
Brain Cancer
190
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
191
Brain Wave
Activity is
recorded on
an EEG
Not to be
confused with
an EKG,
which is for
the heart.
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
192
Brain Waves
193
 Types of brain waves
 Alpha (active during wakeful relaxation of closed
eyes, such as meditation, prayer). When you pray or
meditate for a long time, you feel refreshed!
 Beta (active when learning, thinking and
concentrating)
 Theta (active when just falling asleep)
 Delta (active during deepest stage of sleep)
Human Experiments
194
 We can figure out how the brain works by examining
people’s motor and sensory abilities after a head
injury, and comparing them to normal.
 A brain tumor can sometimes cause epilepsy.
If the surgery does not show where the tumor is, the
patient needs to be under mild sedation only, so they
can probe the area, get feedback from the
patient, and see the results. That’s how they can
find the tumor.
Brain Tumor Therapies
Gamma Knife Therapy
195
 The gamma knife and its associated computerized
treatment planning software enable physicians to
locate and irradiate relatively small targets in the
head (mostly inside the brain) with extremely high
precision. Intense doses of radiation can be given to
the targeted area(s) while largely sparing the
surrounding tissues.
 The gamma knife is usually unsuitable for targets
larger than three or four centimeters in size.
Gamma Knife Therapy
196
 The target is placed exactly in the center of
approximately 200 precision-aimed, converging
beams of (Cobalt-60 generated) gamma radiation.
 Treatment takes anywhere from several minutes to a
few hours to complete depending on the shape and
size of the target and the dose required.
 Patients do not feel the radiation.
 Following treatment the headframe is removed and
the patient may return to normal activity.
Gamma Knife Therapy
197
Tumor-Starving Therapy: Avastin
198
 Avastin is an innovative tumor-starving therapy designed to
block the VEGF (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor)
protein that is produced by normal cells and overproduced
by cancer cells, and is needed for cell growth.
 Avastin is not chemotherapy and therefore works
differently.
 VEGF is important for the formation of blood vessels.
Tumors rely on blood vessels to get the nutrients and
oxygen they need to survive.
199
 Paralyzed woman moves robotic arm using
thought alone
 Robotic Arm Woman (3 mins)
 Robotic Arm Man (7mins)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QRt8QCx3BCo
Look at this picture.
200
Stare at this picture
and you will see the
man turn his face.
Your brain cannot
imagine half a face so
it will correct the
image so his face will
appear sideways!
201
202
How do drugs affect the brain?
203
 Alcohol
 Drugs
 Nicotine
DRUG ABUSE
204
 Many drugs can alter the mood or emotional state, but they
also have other side effects.
 Drug abuse quickly leads to dependence, which is when a
person spends much time thinking about the drug or
arranging to get it and they take more of the drug than was
intended because they develop tolerance to it and then
need more to get the same effect.
 They get withdrawal symptoms when they try to stop.
 Drug use occurs when people want to avoid dealing with
their personal problems and unpleasant emotions.
ALCOHOL
205
 Alcohol affects the cerebellum (balance area of the
brain)
 You can see that area of the brain has been affected by
alcohol because you cannot walk a straight line or
close your eyes and touch your finger to your nose.
ALCOHOL
206
 Alcohol is metabolized (broken down) in the liver, where it
disrupts the normal working of the liver so that fats cannot
be broken down, and they accumulate.
 This fat accumulation, which is the first stage of liver
deterioration, begins after only one night of heavy drinking.
If the drinking continues, scar tissue appears in the second
stage. If the drinking stops, the liver can still recover and
become normal again. If not, the final stage, cirrhosis of
the liver occurs, and the liver cells die and harden and
cannot be repaired.
 Alcohol crosses the placenta in pregnant women and causes
fetal alcohol syndrome, which is characterized by
mental retardation.
NICOTINE
207
 This is from tobacco, and it quickly goes into the
entire nervous system and is highly addictive. It
also increases the heart rate and blood
pressure. Withdrawal symptoms include
headache, irritability, and insomnia.
 Lung cancer has passed breast cancer as a cause
of death. Nicotine also causes harm to the fetus.
Interestingly, alcohol is the most toxic drug
available (more toxic than illegal drugs) and
tobacco is the one of the most addictive, yet these
two substances are legal.
COCAINE
208
 A cocaine binge can go on for days, after which the
individual suffers from a crash. The cocaine high is
followed by depression because it depletes
dopamine. That’s why their mood does not just return to
normal.
 During the binge, the person has no desire for food or sleep.
During the crash, the user is tired, depressed, irritable, and
has memory and concentration problems. It usually winds
up causing a loss of sex drive and impotence.
 Too much can cause seizures and cause the heart to stop
beating and the lungs to stop breathing.
 Babies born to addicts suffer brain and developmental
problems. If someone uses cocaine every day for 30 days,
there is a 100% chance of becoming addicted.
What to do if someone has a seizure:
209

http://www.fbhc.org/Patients/Modules/ep_ifsomeone.cfm
 Roll the person on his or her side to prevent choking on any fluids or vomit.
 Cushion the person’s head.
 Loosen any tight clothing around the neck.
 Keep the person’s airway open. If necessary, grip the person’s jaw gently and

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tilt his or her head back.
Do NOT restrict the person from moving unless he or she is in danger.
Do NOT put anything into the person’s mouth, not even medicine or liquid.
These can cause choking or damage to the person’s jaw, tongue, or teeth.
Contrary to widespread belief, people cannot swallow their tongues during a
seizure or any other time.
Remove any sharp or solid objects that the person might hit during the seizure.
Note how long the seizure lasts and what symptoms occurred so you can tell a
doctor or emergency personnel if necessary.
Stay with the person until the seizure ends.
What to do if someone has a seizure:
210
 Call 911 if:The person is pregnant or has diabetes.
 The seizure happened in water.
 The seizure lasts longer than 5 minutes.
 The person does not begin breathing again and return to consciousness after
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the seizure stops.
Another seizure starts before the person regains consciousness.
The person injures himself or herself during the seizure.
This is a first seizure or you think it might be. If in doubt, check to see if the
person has a medical identification card or jewelry stating that they have
epilepsy or a seizure disorder.
After the seizure ends, the person will probably be groggy and tired. He or she
also may have a headache and be confused or embarrassed. Be patient with the
person and try to help him or her find a place to rest if he or she is tired or
doesn’t feel well. If necessary, offer to call a taxi, a friend, or a relative to help
the person get home safely.
HEROIN
211
 Side effects include nausea, vomiting, and a decrease
in breathing and circulation, which can cause death.
 The user becomes so tolerant to it, they have to take
more and more of it just to prevent the withdrawal
symptoms. These symptoms include
sweating, shakes, abdominal cramps, and an
increase in heart rate.
 Infants born of addicts also suffer these withdrawal
symptoms.
MARIJUANA
212
 This causes alteration in vision, judgment,

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
and motor coordination.
Causes distortions of space and time.
They lack motor coordination, including the ability
to speak in a way that is understandable.
Heavy use causes hallucinations, anxiety, depression,
body image distortion, paranoia and loss of sense of
reality.
Long term use can lead to brain impairment.
Ecstasy
213
 http://www.ecstasy.ws/e-side-effects.htm
 When the drug has worn off, serotonin levels become
severely depleted.
 This causes the depressive episodes called Suicide
Tuesday because of the midweek depression that
users often experience after having used the drug on
the weekend.
214
For Fun
• Intelligence – Lumosity Brain training games
http://www.parade.com/games/lumosity/word-bubble.html
• Food Additives and Children's Hyperactivity
http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1661703,00.html
• Cure for epilepsy? New device can reduce,
stop seizures
•
http://www.foxnews.com/health/2012/11/13/cure-for-epilepsy-new-device-can-reduce-stop-seizures/
• Narcolepsy
215