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Geology is the science of Earth.
 Geologists study the Earth’s processes, such as:
 Volcanism.
 Glaciation.
 Stream-flow.
 Rock formation .

 Chemistry, to understand:
– Minerals.
– Dissolved minerals.
– Minerals resources.
– Rocks formation.
– Ground water.

 Physics, to understand:
– Plate tectonics.
– Volcanism.
– Earthquakes.
– Landslides.
 Biology, to understand:
– How life processes integrate with other Earth systems.
– How life has evolved.
– Fossils in the rocks.

 Meteorology, to understand :
– Stream flow.
– Groundwater levels.
 Oceanography, to understand:
– Seafloor’s role in plate tectonics.
– Shorelines.

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Astronomy.
Mathematics.
Computer sciences .
Economics, to understand how humans employ :
– Minerals.
– Energy resources.

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They seek to understand all processes that operate on and inside the Earth.
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They study:
– Our planet’s long history.
– Water bodies (rivers and lakes).
– Hazardous processes such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, flood, and landslides .
– Rocks.
– Spot surface patterns.

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Historical geology
 Chronology of events, both physical and biological, that have occurred in the past.
 The past is the biggest clue to the present.
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Physical geology
 Concerned with understanding the processes and the materials.

 Plate tectonics.
 Volcanism.
 Earthquakes.
 Landslides.
 Floods.
 Formation of mineral deposits.
 Mountain-building.
 Shore erosion.
 Landscape formation.
 Rocks.
 Minerals.
 Air.
 Seawater.
 Soil.
 Sand

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Geologists use a research strategy called the scientific method.
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The scientific method includes the following steps:
 Observe and measure.
 Form a hypothesis (a plausible, but unproved, explanation for the way something happens).

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Test the hypothesis (by comparing the predictions against the new observations).
Formulate a theory (a generalization about natural phenomena).
Formulate a law or principle (statements that some natural phenomenon is invariably observed to happen in the same way, and no deviations have ever been observed).
Continually reexamine the law or principle in the light of new evidence.

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During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, people believed that Earth’s features (mountains, valleys, oceans, rivers) were permanent and had been produced by a few great upheavals.
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This theory is called Catastrophism 災變說 .

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James Hutton (1726-1797), now known as the father of modern scientific geology , assembled evidence and proposed a counterhypothesis called gradualism.
 In 1795, he published “Theory of the Earth with
Proofs and Illustrations.”
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He proposed uniformitarianism , which asserts that everything must move slowly in a repetitive, continuous cycle.

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States that the same processes we observe today have been operating throughout Earth’s history.
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The cycle of uplift, erosion, transport, deposition, solidification into rock, and renewed uplift requires a great deal of time for its operation.
 The Earth is 4.55 billion years old.

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Recently, a thin and very unusual rock layer, rich in the rare metal iridium 【化】銥 , has been discovered at many locations worldwide.
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It indicates that a catastrophic impact from a meteor may have occurred about 66 million years ago.
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The mass extinction of dinosaurs occurred at that time.
More dramatic extinctions have occurred at other times in the past.
 The mass extinction occurring about 245 million years ago eliminated almost 90 percent of all plants and animals living at the time.
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Events such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunami, floods, and landslides are local catastrophes.

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Stratigraphy is the study of the structure of sedimentary layers recording a sequence of past events.
– The layers at the bottom of the pile are the oldest.
– Those at the top are the youngest.
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Stratigraphy identifies the relative age of many geologic events.
 Relative age identifies position in a limited sequence. (“This is older than that.”)
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Radioactivity can be used to establish the absolute age of geologic events.
 Absolute age identifies position in a universal sequence (such as our current system of naming years in chronological order). (“This is
49,000 years old.”)

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When a meteorite impacts a planet or moon, its energy of motion (called kinetic energy) is transformed into heat energy.
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As Earth grew larger and larger from continual impacts, its temperature increased.
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Radioactive decay of materials like uranium, thorium and potassium also added heat.
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Because Earth became partly fluid, less-dense molten materials (silicon, aluminum, sodium, and potassium) were freed to migrate toward the surface.
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Denser melted materials, such as molten iron, sank toward the center of the planet.

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Planet Earth has three main parts:
 At the center is the densest part, the core (metallic iron, nickel).
 Surrounding the core is the mantle.
 Surrounding the mantle lies the thinnest and outermost layer, the crust.

Figure 1.13

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The crust is not uniform.
 The oceanic crust on average is about 8 km thick.
 The continental crust on average is about 45 km thick.

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How do we know anything about the composition of the core and the mantle?
 By measuring the time required for earthquake waves to travel through Earth by different paths, we can determine the composition of the materials through which they move.
 Iron meteorites are believed to be fragments from the core of a small terrestrial planet that was shattered by a gigantic impact.

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The inner core
 Pressures are so great that iron is solid, despite its high temperature.
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The outer core
 Iron is molten and exists as a liquid.
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The Mesosphere 中層圈
 The mantle 地函 between the bottom of the asthenosphere 軟流圈 to the core-mantle boundary.
 The temperature at the core-mantle boundary is about 5000 0 C.

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The Asthenosphere: 軟流圈
 The region of the mantle where rocks become ductile, have little strength, and are easily deformed. It lies at a depth of 100 to 350 km below the surface.
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The Lithosphere: 岩石圈
 The outer 100 km of the solid Earth, where rocks are harder and more rigid than those in the plastic asthenosphere.

Figure 1.13

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The Earth gets rid of heat and keeps a nearly constant internal temperature through convection in the mesosphere and asthenosphere.
 Plate tectonics theory says that Earth’s outermost
100 km “eggshell” (the lithosphere) is cracked in about a dozen large pieces.

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In the 1960s , research by many geologists and oceanographers melded into the revolutionary hypothesis of plate tectonics.
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Plate tectonics is a group of processes by which large fragments (plates) of lithosphere move horizontally across the surface of the Earth. Through their movements and interactions, they generate:
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Earthquakes.
Volcanism.
Mountain-building.
Other geologic processes.

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The Earth system is composed of:
 The geosphere (rocks).
 The atmosphere (air).
 The hydrosphere (water).
 The biosphere (life in all its forms).
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Energy and materials (like water, carbon, and minerals) are transferred from one system to another.
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To a close approximation, Earth is a closed system.

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Earth is only approximately a closed system because:
 Meteorites do come in from space and fall on Earth.
 A tiny trickle of gases leaves the atmosphere and escapes into space.
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Earth is comprised of four open systems.

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The atmosphere:
 Nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, and water vapor.
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The hydrosphere:
 Oceans, lakes, streams, underground water, snow, and ice.
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The biosphere:
 All of Earth’s organisms, as well as any organic matter not yet decomposed.
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The geosphere:
 The solid Earth from core to surface, composed principally of rock and regolith.

Figure 1.16

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The movement of materials is continuous.
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There are two key aspects to cycles:
 The reservoirs in which the materials reside.
 The flows, or fluxes, of materials from reservoir to reservoir.
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The speed of movement differs greatly in different cycles.

Figure 1.17

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The hydrologic cycle:
 Water in Earth’s hydrosphere.
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The rock cycle:
 Rock is formed, modified, decomposed,and reformed by the internal and external processes of Earth.
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The tectonic cycle:
 Movements of plates of lithosphere, and the internal processes of Earth’s deep interior that drive plate motions.

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The hydrologic cycle:
 Is powered by heat from the sun.
 Encompasses the movement of water in the atmosphere, in the hydrosphere, on the Earth’s surface, and in the
Earth’s crust.

Figure 1.18

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Rock is any naturally formed, nonliving, firm and coherent aggregate of mineral matter that constitutes part of a planet.
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The three rock families:
 Igneous rock:
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 Created through the cooling and solidification of magma
Sedimentary rock:
 Formed from deposits of sediment
Metamorphic rock:
 Formed by the effects of pressure and heat on existing rocks

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The rock cycle describes all the processes by which rock is:
 Formed.
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Transported.
Decomposed.
 Reformed.
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Active volcanoes produce igneous rocks.
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Mountain ranges rise as a result of plate tectonics.
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Weathering and erosion change the surface of the solid Earth.

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The sediment is buried and compacted, eventually becoming sedimentary rock.
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Deeper burial turns sedimentary rock into metamorphic rock.
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Even deeper burial may cause some of the metamorphic rock to melt, forming magma from which new igneous rock will form.

Figure 1.19

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Tectonics is the study of the movement and deformation of the lithosphere.
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When magma rises from deep in the mantle, it forms new oceanic crust at midocean ridges.
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The lifetime of oceanic crust is shorter than the lifetime of continental crust.
 The most ancient oceanic crust of the ocean basins is only about 180 million years old, and the average age of all oceanic crust is about 70 million years old.

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When all oceanic crust sinks back into the mantle, it carries some water with it.
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The water is driven off during volcanic eruptions.
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Some constituents in the hot rock (calcium, magnesium) are the same as those of seawater.

Figure 1.20

Figure 1.21