Learning
How do we learn?
1. Classical conditioning
2. Operant conditioning
3. Learning by Observation
How Do We Learn?
Learning
Relatively permanent change in behavior due to
experience
Associative learning
Learning that certain events occur together
When two stimuli occur together we call it
classical conditioning
When there is a response and its consequence, we
call it operant conditioning
Learning
Classical conditioning
Type of learning in which we learn to link two or
more stimuli and anticipate events
Operant conditioning
Type of learning in which we learn to associate a
response and its consequence
Thus, we learn to repeat acts followed by good results
and to avoid acts followed by bad results
Let’s take a closer look.
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Classical & Operant Conditioning are not the
only forms of learning
Observational learning, another form of cognitive
learning, is learning from others’ experiences
Why are habits, such as having something sweet
with that cup of coffee, so hard to break?
Classical Conditioning
Classical
Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov
“Experimental investigation
should lay a solid foundation for a
future true
science of psychology” (1927).
PAVLOV’S CLASSIC EXPERIMENT
Let’s make sure all the definitions are clear.
Classical Conditioning Terminology
Neutral Stimulus: A stimulus that doesn’t bring
about a response
Unconditioned Stimulus:
A stimulus that NATURALLY
brings about a response.
Unconditioned Response:
A US causes a UR
Conditioned Stimulus:
Conditioned Response:
A CS causes a CR
A response (reaction) that
happens naturally (involuntary)
A stimulus that, through
association (pairing repeatedly)
brings about a response.
A response (reaction) that
happens due to being
conditioned (trained)
(involuntary)
Can you define each of these more
completely?
Neutral stimulus (NS)
In classical conditioning, a stimulus that evokes no
response before conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—
naturally and automatically—triggers a response (UR)
Unconditioned response (UR)
In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring
response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus
(US) (such as food in the mouth)
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant
stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned
stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned
response (CR)
Conditioned response (CR)
In classical conditioning, a learned response to a
previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus
(CS)
An experimenter sounds a tone just before
delivering an air puff to your blinking eye.
After several repetitions, you blink to the tone
alone. What is…
The NS?
tone (before conditioning)
The US?
air puff
The UR?
blink (to air puff)
The CS?
tone (after conditioning)
The CR?
blink (to tone)
Classical Conditioning
Acquisition
First stage in classical conditioning
Place where link between the NS and US is learned
AN UNEXPECTED CS
Psychologist Michael Tirrell (1990) recalled: “My first girlfriend loved
onions, so I came to associate onion breath with kissing. Before long,
onion breath sent tingles up and down my spine. Oh what a feeling!”
In horror movies, sexually arousing images of
women are sometimes paired with violence
against women. Based on classical conditioning
principles, what might be an effect of this pairing?
Classical Conditioning
Extinction and spontaneous recovery
Extinction the weakening of a conditioned response
happens when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a
conditioned stimulus (no longer give food after bell)
Spontaneous recovery
Reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned
response
ACQUISITION, EXTINCTION, AND
SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY
The rising curve (simplified here) shows that the CR rapidly grows
stronger as the NS becomes a CS as it is repeatedly paired with the
US (acquisition).
The CS weakens when it is presented alone (extinction). After a pause,
the CR reappears (spontaneous recovery).
The first step of classical conditioning, when an NS
becomes a CS, is called________. When a US no
longer follows the CS, and the CR becomes
weakened, this is called ________ .
Classical Conditioning
Generalization
The tendency, after conditioning, to respond similarly
to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus
Discrimination
ability to tell the difference between a conditioned
stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli
If the aroma of cake baking makes your mouth
water, what is the US? The CS? The CR?
Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life
Pavlov’s principles influence human health
and well- being in a variety of ways
Examples
Patients can develop classically conditioned sideeffects to drugs given as cancer treatments
Former drug users often feel a craving when they are
again in the drug-using context
https://youtu.be/FMnhyGozLyE
In Watson and Rayner’s experiments, “Little
Albert” learned to fear a white rat after repeatedly
experiencing a loud noise as the rat was
loud noise
presented. In this experiment, what was the US?
The UR? The NS? The CS? The CR?
fear response
Rat (before
paired)
Rat (after
paired)
fear
Sensitivity To Punishment or Rewards?
Give yourself 1 point for each odd yes = total
Give yourself 1 point for each even yes = total
0-24
Sensitivity to Reward (even)
High punishment
likely to be
vulnerable to
anxiety
Higher score = greater sensitivity toward reward
High reward
likely to be
impulsive
Sensitivity to Punishment (odd)
Higher score = greater sensitivity toward punishment
Consideration of Future Consequence Scale
Circle #3,4,5,9,10,11,12
Cross out the number you put and put it’s
opposite… 1=5
2=4
3=3
4=2
5=1
Total all 12 / Range 12-60
Higher score…greater concern for future consequence
average 42.5
Differences: Classical and Operant
Conditioning
Classical
Operant
• not controlled by
• Involves learning
learner
• Automatic responses
to stimuli
associations between
behavior and resulting
events
• Association with one’s
https://youtu.be/H6LEcM0E0io
Difference Between Classical &
Operant Conditioning
own actions with
consequences
With ________ conditioning, we learn associations
between events we do not control. With ________
conditioning, we learn associations between our
behavior and resulting events.
Operant Conditioning
Skinner’s experiments
Rewarded behavior is likely to be
repeated
Shaping behavior
Teach a behavior in small steps
Successive approximations
Reinforcer
An event that increases the frequency of
a preceding response
CAT IN A PUZZLE BOX
Thorndike used a fish reward to entice
cats to find their way out of a puzzle box
(right) through a series of maneuvers.
The cats’ performance tended to improve
with successive trials (left), illustrating
Thorndike’s law of effect. (Adapted from
Thorndike, 1898.)
Types of Reinforcers
Positive reinforcement
Increases behaviors by presenting positive stimuli
Is anything that, when presented after a response,
strengthens the response
Negative reinforcement
Increases behaviors by stopping or reducing negative
stimuli
Is anything that, when removed after a response,
strengthens the response
Is not punishment
A SKINNER BOX Inside the
box, the rat presses a bar or button
for a food reward. Outside, a
measuring device (not shown
here) keeps records of the animal’s
responses.
WAYS TO INCREASE BEHAVIOR
Operant Conditioning; Types of Reinforcers
Primary reinforcers
Unlearned; innate
Conditioned reinforcers (secondary
reinforcers)
Learned associaitions with primary reinforcers
Delayed reinforcers
Delayed
Can you think of examples for each of these?
Telemarketers are reinforced by which schedule?
People checking the oven to see if the cookies are
done are on which schedule? Airline frequent-flyer
programs that offer a free flight after every 25,000
miles of travel are using which reinforcement
schedule?
Punishment
Ways to decrease behavior
Punished behavior suppressed; punishing behavior
reinforced
Discrimination among situations taught
Generalization occurs; fear taught
Aggression may be increased by modeling
David Strickler / The Image Works
Major drawbacks of physical punishment
Sam Falk / Science Source
Skinner’s Legacy
• Urged people to use operant
principles to influence the
behavior of others
• Criticized for neglecting people’s
personal freedom and advocating
for external control of others
B. F. Skinner “I am sometimes
asked, ‘Do you think of yourself
as you think of the organisms
you study?’ The answer is yes.
So far as I know, my behavior at
any given moment has been
nothing more than the product
of my genetic endowment, my
personal history, and the current
setting” (1983).
Applications of Operant Conditioning
At school
Many of the ideas for education are used today
Electronic adaptive devices are often Skinnerian
At work
Many organizations used reinforcers to influence
productivity
At home
Reinforcement is used and abused in many parenting
situations
Reinforcement can be used effectively to help children
change and manage their behavior
Ethan constantly misbehaves at preschool even
though his teacher scolds him repeatedly. Why
does Ethan’s misbehavior continue, and what can
his teacher do to stop it?
Contrasting Classical and Operant
Conditioning
Classical
Operant
• Form of associative
• Form of associative
learning
learning
• Associate different events
• Links behaviors to act on
that one cannot control
the environment to
produce rewarding or
punishing events
• Respond automatically
Using Operant Conditioning to Build Your
Own Strengths
State your goal in measurable terms and
announce it
Decide how, when, and where you will work
toward your goal
Monitor how often you engage in your desired
behavior
Reinforce the desired behavior
Reduce the rewards gradually
Salivating in response to a tone paired with food is
a(n) behavior; pressing a bar to obtain food is a(n)
behavior.
Biology, Cognition,
and Learning
Biological limits on
conditioning
Garcia and Koelling’s taste aversion
research ended the belief that
environments rule out behavior.
Findings help disprove the belief
that almost any stimulus could serve
equally well as a conditioned
stimulus.
Humans are
biologically prepared
to learn some things
rather than others
Humans are naturally
disposed to learn
associations favored
by natural selection
How did Garcia and Koelling’s taste aversion
studies help disprove the belief that almost any
stimulus (tastes, sights, sounds) could serve
equally well as a conditioned stimulus? Explain.
Courtesy of Kathryn Brownson, Hope College
Biology, Cognition,
and Learning
Limits on operant
conditioning
ROMANTIC RED In a series of
experiments that controlled for other
factors (such as the brightness of
the image), men found women more
attractive and sexually desirable
when framed in red (Elliot & Niesta,
2008).
Each species has a limit
on their capacity for
operant conditioning
Our biology predisposes
us to learn associations
that are naturally
adaptive
Cognitive Influences
on Conditioning
Watson
Rejected mentalistic
concepts
Maintained that the basic
laws of learning are the
same for all animals
Contended that
psychology should be
objective science based
on observable behaviors
Watson’s view of learning
underestimated two sets of
influences:
• Way biological predispositions
limits learning
• Effect of cognitive processes
on learning
Will & Deni McIntyre / Science Source
Cognitive Influences
on Conditioning
LATENT LEARNING Animals, like
people, can learn from experience,
with or without reinforcement.
Cognition and
operant conditioning
Skinner rejected the
premise that
cognitive processes
are integral to
learning
Cognitive maps
Latent learning
Cognitive map
Mental image of the layout of one’s environment
Latent learning
Learning that is not apparent until there is an incentive to
demonstrate it
Intrinsic motivation
Desire to perform a behavior for its own sake
Extrinsic motivation
Desire to perform a behavior to gain a reward or avoid a
punishment
Learning by Observation
Thinking critically about: Does viewing media
violence trigger violent behavior?
Learning by
Observation
Observational learning
Learning by observing
others
Modeling
The process of observing
and imitating a specific
behavior
Vicarious reinforcement or
punishment
Learning to anticipate a
behavior’s consequences in
situations like those being
observed
ALBERT BANDURA “The Bobo doll
follows me wherever I go.”
Learning by Observation
Mirrors and imitation in the brain
Mirror neuron
Fires when we perform certain actions and when we
observe others performing those actions
Provides a neural basis for imitation and
observational learning
Wellcome Department of Imaging Neuroscience / Science Source
EXPERIENCED AND IMAGINED PAIN IN THE BRAIN
Brain activity related to actual pain (left) is mirrored in
the brain of an observing loved one (right). Empathy
in the brain shows up in areas that process emotions,
but not in the areas that register physical pain.
Applications of Observational Learning
Prosocial effects
Prosocial behavior models can have a prosocial effect
Effectiveness is related to consistency in actions and
words
Antisocial effects
Observational learning can have adverse effects
Early childhood environments with high levels of
aggression, TV, and videos are powerful sources of
observational learning
DOES VIEWING MEDIA VIOLENCE TRIGGER
VIOLENT BEHAVIOR?
Correlational studies
In U.S. and Canada, homicide rates doubled as TV
was introduced and spreading
Elementary schoolchildren exposed to media violence
fought more and had a greater risk for violent
behavior as teens.
Experimental studies
Violence-viewing effect stems from two factors
Media models prompt imitation
Prolonged exposure to violence desensitizes viewers