Work in Non-Industrial
Societies
Volti Chapter 8
Majority of people’s lives is spent working
 Technology has greatly changed the way
we work
 It has lightened our load
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Working with the Earliest Tools
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Earliest man (Homo habilis) used simple tools
Early tools have crude appearance but are not primitive
in use
Early tools called primitive because they were used by
one person for a few tasks
Early societies --> division of labor very limited
Workers in "Primitive" societies did not lack technical
ability
Although work process is simple, worker may be highly
dexterous and ingenious
"Stone Age" technology very important breakthrough -->
the idea of making stone chipping tool is hardly obvious
Work and Leisure in
Technologically Primitive Societies
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Primitive people - life of work and toil may not be the whole picture
!Kung Bushmen (Present day-Kalahari Desert- S. Africa) give insight
into primitive man
!Kung live in harsh, difficult environment
But !Kung not etching out a meager existence, as one would
suspect
Adults work 12-19 hours each week to maintain their lifestyle
Remainder time --> hanging out with friends and family
One commentator: "The !Kung are the original affluent society"
Affluence not equal to Abundance --> !Kung have very little material
stuff
!Kung illustrate the principle:
"The amount of work per capita increases with the evolution of culture,
and the amount of leisure per capita decreases"
Work and Leisure in
Technologically Primitive Societies
"A technologically dynamic society
generates labor-saving devices, but at the
same time it produces a steady stream of
new goods that are eagerly sought
after....As workers in a a technologically
advanced society, we often find ourselves
on a treadmill, working long and hard to
obtain the material goods that we scarcely
have time to enjoy"
Work and the Development of Agriculture
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Hunting and gathering dominant mode of
existence throughout human history
Why did humans take up farming
Some say changes in climate
Others argue - climate did not radically change
when farming emerged
Whatever the cause - ability of people to
produce food grew rapidly
Development of agriculture allowed for greater
population densities
Workload of individual increase
Farming Techniques and Patterns of Work
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Connection between technology, population expansion, and increased
work best demonstrated through farming technology
Foraging - Hunting and Gathering societies
Slash and Burn- (earliest farming technology) cut down vegetation and
burn it on the spot
Clears land & puts nutrients in the soil
After harvest land is abandoned up to 20 years --> land replenishes
itself
 More destructive than foraging but less destructive than some other
practices
This practice supports more people than foraging 150 people/sq. mi.
Annual labor requirement - 500-1000 hours - 9-19 hrs/wk equal to
!Kung
Cannot support large populations
Sedentary farming - (Irrigation) supports larger populations - more
destructive
Settled farming - people can remain in one place - communities
emerge
Paradox - as land becomes more productive, people have to work
harder
2X the labor is required for this method
The Ironies of Progress
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Is an "advanced" society truly advanced?
"Advance" needs to be considered within a
number of qualifications
Time - does technology save time or is it time
consuming?
Skill - technology may not mean the individual is
more skilled
Foragers have just as much "skill" as modern
man
One thing is certain - the development of
agricultural technology increased the human
workload
Artisans and Craft Work
 Settled
Farming - communities
emerge - many of the institutions of
today are a result of this shift in
farming
 Religious institutions
 Political institutions
 Division of Labor
Market Emerges
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When goods are no longer made for one another but for a market work is no longer embedded in social relationships
"It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the
baker, that we expect our dinner, but form their regard to their own
interest. We address ourselves, not to their humanity, but to their
self-love, and never talk to them of our necessities, but of their own
advantages“ (Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations)
Market relationships are based on the exchange of goods and
services
This relationship ends when the transaction is complete
This principle has far reaching implications for the way in which work
is approached
"When work is firmly rooted in social relationships, the way the work
is organized will not be governed solely by the technical
requirements for the job."
Guild Organization and
Technological Change
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Guilds - groupings of people engaged in the
same kind of occupation restricts the practice of
a particular craft to members of the guild
New members often recruited within guild
families
Guild regulates entrance of new members and,
consequently, new blood into the industry
because "outsiders" are restricted, innovation
they may have for industry is never realized -->
technological change is stifled
Slavery and the Inhibition of
Technological Development
When slaves are readily available, there
are few incentives to invent and use laborsaving technology
 Rome/Greece --> few technological
advances - many slaves
 Middle Ages --> many technological
advances - few slaves (Church forbade
slavery)
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The Measurement of Time and
Changed Working Patterns
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Relationship between work and time:
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In traditional societies the distinction between work and
leisure unclear
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amount of time that is expended on work
the way that it is scheduled
work integrated with various religious and social activities
certain times of year required much work (harvesting) other
times required little
no fixed schedules
In modern society work/leisure distinction is much
sharper
Rise of Protestantism (Calvinism) gave a new centrality
to work
The Clock
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Major influence by this invention
Time telling devices always a part of human existence (Sun Dial, etc.)but
none as "accurate" as the clock
Ancient world had little need for clock - society not regimented
The rise of the Medieval monastery brought about the need for precise time
telling
Monasteries had hundreds of monks and workers to be organized
Prayer time, Masses, and other religious observances required scheduling
Rule of St. Benedict - day/night divided into 12 hr. intervals - prayers said
every 3rd hr.
First Clock - 13th century
Clock - embodies all the key characteristics of a machine
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external source of energy required - no human or animal power needed
operation – automatic - required little human intervention
Output - standard - in hours, minutes, seconds
Clock made time into a substance, something to be saved or wasted
Clock is the symbol for modern age
Clock turned work into routinized procedures governed by artificial time
schedules