Magic, Science and Religion
Part II, Lecture 2
Social Evolutionism: Comte, Spencer and Marx
Science and the
science of society
Social evolution
Comte
1. Positive
philosophy
(positivism).
Modern science is
based on the
understanding of
the processes and
structures that
govern existence of
matter, life, and
society. The role of
science is to reveal
the laws that
generate the
empirical world.
Spencer
1. The sciences are
united by their
logic and methods.
The sciences are
concerned both
with the structure
of things (statics)
and the processes
of change that these
things are subject
to (dynamics).
Evolution is the
central principle
with respect to the
latter.
2. The science of
society
(‘sociology’) has
its own object and
particular methods
(as do all the
sciences). It is at
the summit of the
hierarchy of
sciences because its
subject matter and
methods are the
most complex.
2. Sociology
concerns societies
as interdependent
systems of parts. It
is continuous with
the other sciences
in so far as they
together provide a
complete
explanation of the
nature of existence
– System of
Synthetic
Philosophy.
1. Human
knowledge and
social life are
subject to the Law
of the Three Stages:
they pass through,
respectively, the
theological,
metaphysical and
positive stages.
1. Societies evolve
according to a
universal law of
evolution, in which
there is movement
from the simple to
the complex
through
differentiation.
Marx and Engels
1. The modern
empirical sciences
have provided a
model for the study
of society (though
scientific
knowledge can also
be ‘ideological’).
True scientific
knowledge reveals
the mechanisms
that underlie and
give rise to
appearances,
whereas ideological
knowledge serves
to justify
appearances as
natural, immutable,
etc.
2. The science of
society is, at
bottom, the science
of the way in which
societies organise
the production of
their means of
reproduction
(historical
materialism).
1. Societies (social
formations) rise
and fall according
to the organisation
of production (the
mode of
production). This
process is driven by
technological
development.
The character of
the primitive
mind and society
2. Changes to a
society are not
simply a product of
changes in
mentality. The
character of the
human mind is
shaped by the
existence of
specific kinds of
social institutions
and practices. In
turn, knowledge
and social systems
are sensitive to
‘external’ forces –
changes in
population or the
environment.
1. The primitive
mind is irrational
and child-like in
character.
2. Primitive society
is undifferentiated
– it exists to meet
only primal needs.
2. Human societies
seek to meet the
goal of human
happiness through
adaptation to the
social state. They
develop through
processes of
individuation and
interdependence.
Acquired
characteristics are
transmitted by
culture (influence
of Lamarck rather
than Darwin).
2. Transitions
between forms of
society come about
when the
productive forces
can no longer
sustain particular
kinds of class
relations (the
relations of
production).
Ultimately, social
transformation
(revolution) comes
about in the
material interests of
the species.
1. The primitive
mind is largely
concerned with
survival and
reproduction.
1. The primitive
mind reflects the
(simple) needs of
life in a state of
‘primitive
communism’.
2. Primitive society
meets limited
human needs, but is
a necessary stage
(savagery) in the
trajectory towards
civilisation.
2. Primitive society
is undifferentiated
and based on
(perhaps originally
matrilineal) kinship
ties.