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MANAJEMEN AGROEKOSISTEM
(smno.tnh.fpub)
Definisi Manajemen Ekosistem
Banyak orang dan organisasi telah mendefinisikan “pengelolaan
ekosistem”. Contoh-contoh berikut ini menampilkan beragam definisidefinisi. Ada dua macam thema umum pada definisi-definisi pengelolaanekosistem ini, yaitu: (1) pengelolaan harus memelihara atau memperbaiki
ekosistem, dan (2) ekosistem harus dapat menyediakan beragam barang
dan jasa untuk generasi sekarang dan masa depan.
...regulating internal ecosystem structure and function, plus inputs
and outputs, to achieve socially desirable conditions. (Agee and
Johnson 1987)
...the strategy by which, in aggregate, the full array of forest values and
functions is maintained at the landscape level. Coordinated
management at the landscape level, including across ownerships, is an
essential component. (Society of American Foresters 1993)
...a strategy or plan to manage ecosystems for all associated
organisms, as opposed to a strategy or plan for managing individual
species. (Forest Ecosystem Management Assessment Team, 1993)
…....a resource management system designed to maintain or enhance
ecosystem health and productivity while producing essential
commodities and other values to meet human needs and desires
within the limits of socially, biologically and economically acceptable
risk. (American Forest Paper Association Forest Resources Board,
1993)
…....integrating scientific knowledge of ecological relationships within
a complex sociopolitical and values framework toward the general goal
of protecting native ecosystem integrity over the long term.
(Grumbine, 1994)
…....management driven by explicit goals, executed by policies,
protocols, and practices, and made adaptable by monitoring and
research based on our best understanding of the ecological
interactions and processes necessary to sustain ecosystem structure
and function. (Christensen et al., 1996)
Definisi Ekosistem
Istilah "ecosystem" dikemukakan oleh Tansley (1935) dalam
rangka menerapkan pemikiran system untuk menelaah kompleksitas alam.
Ecosystems bersifat hierarkhis. Dengan demikian, ada ekosistem di dalam
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suatu ekosistem. For example, a single decaying log on the forest floor
may host an entire ecosystem; just as the watershed in which the log
occurs may be considered an ecosystem. Both ecosystems depend on
inputs of nutrients, water, and light; both include plants, animals, predators,
prey, and detritivores that transform the inputs to produce outputs of
nutrients, energy, and water. Within components of the decaying log there
may be several levels of nested ecosystems. Similarly, the watershed may
be a subcomponent of larger ecosystems. Kompleksitas sifat ekosistem
dapat lebih mudah dipahami dengan pendekatan “hierarkhis system
tersarang”.
Proses-proses dalam ekosistem
Kita semua memahami bahwa ekosistem adalah segala sesuatu di
sekitar kita, leh karena itu kita perlu mengkajinya secara lebih akurat.
Since we know that ecosystems are made up of many interacting abiotic
and biotic parts, those interactions must hold the key to what ecosystems
can do. First, an ecosystem needs energy to work. Just like the computer
you are using to read this, an ecosystem cannot function without energy. In
many ecosystems, energy first enters the ecosystem from the sun. You
may have heard of solar-powered electricity. Well, many ecosystems are
also solar-powered.
Tumbuhan dan beberapa jenis bakteri dapat menangkap energy
dari cahaya matahari dan menyimpannya dalam jaringan tubuhnya.
Mereka menggunakan energy untuk tumbuh dan reproduksi.
Energi yang ditangkap oleh tumbuhan tidak tinggal diam di dalam
tumbuhan itu. Tumbuhan menjadi makanan bagi konsumer, sehingga
energy yang ada di dalam jaringan tumbuhan dipindahkan ke dalam tubuh
organism yang memakan tumbuhan tersebut. Predators get their energy
by eating consumers. Dead plants and animals are food for tiny microorganisms like bacteria and fungi. You probably know these feeding
relationships as a food web. The food web allows energy to flow through
the ecosystem and power the activities of many organisms (including
people).
Ekosistem mencakup semua benda yang dapat kita lihat, seperti
air, tanah, dan vegetasi. Ekosistem juga mencakup benda-benda
yang tersembunyi dari pandangan mata kita, seperti organism yang
hidup di dalam tanah dan micro-organisme yang terlalu kecil untuk
dilihat dengan mata telanjang.
Ecosystems include not only living and non-living things, but also
interactions among them. In this forest ecosystem, precipitation, represented
by blue arrows, may be taken up by plants by roots, or may percolate
through the soil and be stored as groundwater. Sunlight, shown in yellow,
provides energy to plants. This energy may be passed on to animals that eat
plants (shown by the green arrow), like the deer in this forest.
Energi dalam tumbuhan juga dapat diteruskan kepada decomposer
(perombak), seperti cacing tanah, dan bacteria yang hidup dalam
bangkai tumbuhan atau dalam tanah. Micro-organisme yang
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melekat pada akar tumbuhan dapat membantu tumbuhan
menangkap sejumlah hara yang dilepaskan oleh dekomposer pada
saat mereka merombak bahan organik.
Sumber: http://askabiologist.asu.edu/explore/i-spy-ecosystem ..... diunduh
26/6/2011)
Definisi Manajemen
Tantangan besar dalam mengimplementasikan pengelolaan
ekosistem adalah “apa yang dimaksud dengan “pengelolaan”. Dalam
konteks proses pengambilan keputusan, keputusan pengelolaan di dalam
suatu hierarkhis harus dilakukan pada setiap level dalam hierarkhis
tersebut. Karena adanya perbedaan di antara level-level dalam hierarkhis,
maka tipe-tipe keputusan yang dilakukan pada setiap level tentu akan
berbeda. Kalau pembahasan pengelolaan ekosistem difokuskan pada
jasa-jasa dan keterbatasan suatu system silvikultur tertentu (misalnya
tebang-habis),
maka
akan
mengabaikan
keputusan-keputusan
pengelolaan skala yang lebih luas, padahal hal ini sama pentingnya untuk
mengelola system yang hierakrhisnya multi-skala. Oleh karena itu sangat
penting untuk memperhatikan dengan seksama bagaimana kita membuat
konsep pengelolaan dan proses pengambilan keputusan yang kompleks
untuk system-sistem yang kompleks. Pertama-tama kita harus memikirkan
bagaimana mengelola informasi pada berbagai sekala dan bagaimana
menggunakaninformasi ini untuk membuat keputusan pada setiap level
dalam suatu hierarkhis. Kalau telah tercapai, sarana untuk meneruskan
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dan memproses informasi tersebut dapat dikembangkan atau diadopsi dari
teknologi yang tersedia. Kemudia baru dimungkinkan untuk membahas
pengelolaan secara rinci (misalnya tegakan mana yang harus ditebang
atau ditanam).
Managemen (Pengelolaan) juga dipandang sebagai “driver”
independen, dimana keputusan-keputusan yang dilakukan secara
sadar dapat diambil untuk secara langsung mempengaruhi
gangguan-gangguan (misalnya bencana kebakaran, dll) dan
memodifikasi resultante karakteristik ekosistem hutan. Manajemen
kabakaran, khususnya, memegang peranan penting dalam
mengendalikan proses-proses jangka panjang yang mendasari
adanya tantangan dalam pengelolaa ekosistem hutan.
Pembakaran hutan secara terkendali menjadi salam satu
instrument utama dalam pengelolaan ekosistem hutan. Model
konseptual untuk pengelolaan ekosistem hutan (Taman Hutan
kota) berikut ini meliputi tujuan pengelolaan secara luas.
Sumber: http://www.climatedecisions.org/4_cc_adaptation%20planning_2.htm ….. diunduh 28/6/2011
Agro-Ekosistem
Agroecosystem merupakan unit dasar dari kajian yang dilakukan
oleh para ahli agroekologi, dan secara mudahnya didefinisikan sebagai
unit-unit aktivitas pertanian yang saling berkaitan secara spatial dan
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secara fungsional, dan meliputi komponen-komponen benda hidup dan
komponen benda mati yang saling berinteraksi.
An agroecosystem can be viewed as a subset of a conventional
ecosystem. As the name implies, at the core of an agroecosystem lies the
human activity of agriculture. However, an agroecosystem is not restricted
to the immediate site of agricultural activity (e.g. the farm), but rather
includes the region that is impacted by this activity, usually by changes to
the complexity of species assemblages and energy flows, as well as to the
net nutrient balance. Traditionally an agroecosystem, particularly one
managed intensively, is characterized as having a simpler species
composition and simpler energy and nutrient flows than "natural"
ecosystem. Likewise, agroecosystems are often associated with elevated
nutrient input, much of which exits the farm leading to eutrophication of
connected ecosystems not directly engaged in agriculture.
It is necessary to start with some definitions, including the distinction
between agroecosystems and agricultural technology systems (Fig. 1). An
agroecosystem is a complex of air, water, soil, plants, animals, microorganisms, and everything else in a bounded area that people have modified
for the purposes of agricultural production. An agroecosystem can be of any
specified size. It can be a single field, it can be a household farm, or it can be
the agricultural landscape of a village, region, or nation.
An agricultural technology system is the blueprint for an agroecosystem. It is
a 'design', 'plan', or 'mental image' - the total package of technology which a
farmer or community uses to mold a given area into an agroecosystem. An
agricultural technology system specifies all the crops (and/or livestock) to be
employed, the spatial arrangement and temporal sequence of the crops, and
all inputs to modify the environment so crops produce as they should.
Agricultural technology systems embrace all that is customarily included in
the concept of cropping systems, but agricultural technology systems are
broader in the sense that they include everything that is done to shape an
agroecosystem, including parts of the ecosystem that are not directly related
to the crops.
Beberapa konsep dasar dalam pendugaan valuasi agroekosistem. (Sumber:
http://www.gerrymarten.com/publicatons/agroecosystem-Assessment.html .....
diunduh 27/6/2011)
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Sistem teknologi pertanian sangat penting bagi petani sebagai
sarana untuk mengelola agroekosistem, tetapi system teknologi ini juga
sangat penting bagi para ilmuwan pertanian. When scientists try to
improve agriculture, they are seeking better designs for technology
systems, and it is through technology systems that scientists communicate
the fruits of their efforts to farmers. (The 'technology' can be any form of
agricultural knowledge, including traditional and informal knowledge as
well as technology associated with modern science.)
Agricultural technology systems can be at any level of generality. For
example, 'shifting cultivation' specifies a broad array of agricultural
technologies, while the technology system for a mixture of maize and beans,
explicitly designed for particular soil conditions at a particular location and
season of the year, may be highly specific with regard to crop variety and
cultivation practices. As a rule, a more general technology system applies to a
broader geographic area, or a broader range of environmental and social
conditions, while a specific technology system applies to a particular locality.
Agricultural technology systems are applied to specific pieces of landscape
under specific environmental and social conditions to form real-world
agroecosystems. Just as the structure of a house is a consequence of not only
an architect's blueprint, but also the particular site on which it is built, the
specific materials available for construction, and the carpenter's skills and
personal style with regard to details of construction, the same applies to
agroecosystems.
Struktur suatu agroekosistem merupakan hasil interaksi dari
teknologi pertanian, dan juga:
1. Kondisi lingkungan sekitarnya (misalnya iklim, tanah, topografi,
berbagai organism yang ada di lokasi), yang mendefinisikan
(membatasi) sumberdaya material yang tersedia untuk
membentuk agroekosistem;
2. Petani dan tatanan sosialnya (misalnya nilai-nilai kemanuisaan,
kelembagaan dan ketrampilan), yang mengkondisikan
bagaimana manusia berinteraksi dengan manusia lain dan
berinteraksi dengan ekosistemnya, sehingga menentukan
bagaimana sebenarnya manusia menggunakan teknologinya
untuk “memasukkan” lingkungan ke dalam agroekosistem.
The distinction between agricultural technology systems and agroecosys-tems
is important because evaluations of agroecosystem performance may be directed
toward one or the other. Sometimes we evaluate the system properties of specific,
real-world agroecosystems, such as a specific field or village, but other times we
evaluate the system properties of agricultural technology systems. Each agricultural
technology system corresponds to an array of real or potential agroecosystems whose
observed or inferred performance can be summarized in terms of system properties.
As shall be seen below, evaluation of the system properties of agricultural technology
systems is complicated by the fact that their performance is highly dependent on the
environmental and social conditions in which they are applied.
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Model struktur agroecosystem yang disederhanakan , menunjukkan adanya control lingkungan fisik dan seperangkat pilihan pengelolaan
lahan yang dapat diimplementasikan.
Model agroekosistem (Sumber: http://www.ncgia.ucsb.edu/conf/SANTA_FE_CDROM/sf_papers/ojima_dennis/figure2.gif ..... diunduh 27/6/2011)
Keterkaitan antara factor-faktor social, ekonomi, budaya yang
mempengaruhi keputusan penggunaan lahan yang memodifikasi prosesproses agroekosistem.
Suatu kerangka-analisis dapat dibuat untuk menyederhanakan
interaksi yang kompleks di dalam dan di antara berbagai subsistem
dengan pendekatan pemodelan yang meliputi semua komponen utamanya
dan mengikatnya bersama secara terpadu spatial. Model ini pada
hakekatnya meniru proses-proses pada tingkat ekosistem yang
memasukkan pengaruh factor-faktor eksternal seperti iklim dan
pengelolaan terhadap produktivitas primer, ketersediaan hara dan air, dan
aliran karbon dan nitrogen.
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Keterkaitan antara factor-faktor social, ekonomi, budaya yang mempengaruhi
keputusan penggunaan lahan (Sumber:
http://www.ncgia.ucsb.edu/conf/SANTA_FE_CDROM/sf_papers/ojima_dennis/figure2.gif ..... diunduh 27/6/2011)
Analisis Agroekosistem
Analisis Agroekosistem merupakan analisis yang menyeluruh
tentang suatu lingkungan pertanian yang memperhatikan aspek-aspek
ekologi, sosiologi, ekonomi, dan politik dengan bobot yang sama. Ada
banyak aspek yang ahrus diperhatikan, sehingga secara harfiah tidak
mungkin memperhitungkan semuanya. Ini merupakan salah satu issu
penting pada sata kita mencoba melakukan analisis suatu lingkungan
pertanian. Pada masa lalu,
pendekatan analisis agroecosystem
digunakan untuk menentukan sustainabilitas suatu sistem pertanian.
Pengalaman menunjukkan bahwa "sustainability" suatu system sangat
tergantung pada definisi “sustainability’ yang dipilih oleh peneliti. Oleh
karena itu, analisis agroekosistem digunakan untuk membawa “kekayaan”
system pertanian yang kompleks kepada suatu analysis untuk
mengidentifikasi rekonfigurasi sistem (atau holon) yang sesuai dengan
suatu situasi tertentu.
Agroecosystem analysis is a tool of the multidisciplinary subject known as
Agroecology. Agroecology and agroecosystem analysis are not the same as
sustainable agriculture, though the use of agroecosystem analysis may help a
farming system ensure its viability. Agroecosystem analysis is not a new
practice, agriculturalists and farmers have been doing it since societies
switched from hunting and gathering (hunter-gatherer) for food to settling in
one area. Every time a person involved in agriculture evaluates their situation
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to identify methods to make the system function in a way that better suits
their interests, they are performing an agroecosystem analysis.
Agroecosystems are overwhelmingly complex. The numerous ecological
processes that tie people, crops, weeds, animals, micro-organisms, soil, and
water together into a functioning, on-going ecosystem are so intricate that
they can never be fully described, nor can they be fully comprehended.
Simplification is a practical necessity of analysis. Simplification is also
essential for effectively communicating the results of analysis to agricultural
practitioners. The dilemma is how to simplify without losing the essence of
key relationships in the agroecosystem as a whole. One approach to
simplification is system properties (also called agroecosystem properties in
this essay), which combine large numbers of agroecosystem processes into
single, highly-aggregated measures of performance that suggest how well an
agroecosystem is meeting human objectives.
Lima ciri dari agroekosistem adalah:
 Produktivitas – jumlah bahan pangan, bahan bakar dan serat
yang dihasilkan oleh agroekosistem untuk dimanfaatkan
manusia.
 Stabilitas – konsistensi produksi.
 Sustainabilitas – mempertahankan tingkat produksi tertentu
pada jangka panjang.
 Equitabilitas – pembagian produksi pertanian secara
berkeadilan
 Autonomi – kemandirian agroekosistem.
Komponen analisis agroekosistem (Sumber:
http://www.fao.org/WAIRDOCS/TAC/Y4847E/y4847e04.gif ….. diunduh
27/6/2011)
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We refer to these properties as system properties (or 'emergent'
properties) because they derive from the system as a whole rather than
from any one of its parts. The productivity of a wet-rice agroecosystem is
not determined simply by the yield potential of the particular rice variety
that is employed. The yield that actually occurs depends upon the
hydrological and nutritional environment the crop experiences at each
successive stage of growth, which is, in part, a consequence of how
farmers manage the crop. The rice productivity is therefore a consequence
of the functioning of the total interactive agricultural-environmental-social
system.
Hubungan antara Ciri-ciri Agroekosistem
Persons responsible for cropping systems design and other
aspects of agricultural development may be particularly interested in the
trade-offs between different agroecosystem properties. Improvements in
one system property (e.g. productivity or stability) should not be at the
expense of other properties - or at least the cost should not be too great.
It would be convenient to have some simple and general rules to
serve as guidelines for how agroecosystems function in this regard, such
as 'If productivity increases, sustainability declines', but it is not easy to
discern a pattern. Some highly productive agricultural technology systems
are quite stable while others are not, and some low-productivity agricultural
technology systems are stable while others are not. For example, intensive
high-yield rice production has reliable yields in some areas but is not
reliable in other areas because of pests such as the brown planthopper.
Consistent relationships between productivity and the other system
properties are equally elusive, but exploring those relationships can
nonetheless provide some insights into agroecosystem design.
Produktivitas, Stabilitas dan Sustainabilitas
There are numerous ways that high levels of productivity can have
a positive impact on stability and sustainability. For example, higher
productivity may be attained by increasing the harvests in bad years (i.e.
irrigation to reduce the impact of drought, or pesticides to reduce the
impact of pest attacks), thereby making harvests more even from year to
year, increasing stability. Higher productivity can be associated with higher
sustainability when a more productive crop provides a more complete
cover for soil protection and contributes more crop residues for the
maintenance of soil organik matter. Higher productivity can also be
associated with higher stability or sustainability if it leads to household
savings that give a household the capacity to deal with periodic problems
that threaten production. In general, any attributes that increase 'fallbacks'
and other adaptive mechanisms in an agroecosystem can increase both its
stability and/or sustainability (Jodha & Mascarenhas, 1983).
There are also many ways that productivity can be negatively
associated with stability or sustainability. For example, higher productivity
can be associated with lower stability if the higher production is achieved
by means of high-yielding varieties that are more vulnerable than local
varieties to fluctuating environmental stresses such as droughts and pest
attacks - or if high yields lead to a glut on the market that depresses prices.
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Higher productivity can be associated with lower sustainability if production
is at the expense of soil resources (e.g. by generating erosion, reducing
soil organik matter or exporting soil nutrients), if the production is due to
heavy inputs leading to major alterations in the ecosystem that eventually
undercut production (e.g. irrigation leading to salinization or pesticides
leading to the loss of natural enemies and the emergence of secondary
pests), or if higher production is a consequence of labor inputs that place a
strain on social institutions underlying the organization of agricultural
production.
Higher stability can reduce sustainability in the face of occasional,
severe stresses (i.e. reduce resilience) if, under stable conditions, the
agroecosystem (and its inhabitants) cease to exercise their abilities to deal
with stress (because there is no need to do so) and consequently lose that
ability, even though they may eventually need it. Farmers with a steady
supply of irrigation water have more stable yields than rainfed
agriculturalists because they are liberated from the negative effects that
short periods without rainfall can have on rainfed agriculture. However,
they may also lose the agricultural technology they once had for rainfed
agriculture, simply because they no longer need it. Drought-resistant
varieties may be discarded and cultivation practices to make the most of
limited soil moisture supplies may be forgotten. As a consequence, they
may not have the means to prevent crop failure if the irrigation system
should fail.
There are numerous other examples of this conflict between
stability and resilience. Chemical fertilizers help to buffer farmers from
spatial variations in soil quality in their fields. Because large amounts of
labor are required to collect and transport animal manure or green manure
to maintain organik matter levels, the effort may not seem necessary as
long as chemical fertilizers can compensate for diminishing organik matter.
However, the impact of an increase in fertilizer prices that forces farmers to
reduce fertilizer use can be particularly severe if they have not taken the
effort to maintain the organik matter content of their soil. To cite another
example, the construction of flood control dams allows farmers to cultivate
fertile flood plains without worrying about flood damage, but the 'once in a
hundred years' flood that overruns the dams can cause damage on a scale
far greater than would occur if the farmers pursued their agriculture and
constructed their villages in constant expectation of floods.
In pest control, the use of chemical pesticides can increase
stability, providing an opportunity to eliminate even the smallest pest
losses. Indigenous pest-resistant crop varieties may be discarded, and the
pesticides may eradicate the pests' natural enemies along with the pests. If
a pesticide-resistant strain of the pest should suddenly appear, the
damage may be more serious than it would have been without pesticides,
because natural enemies are no longer present to keep the pest
abundance within reasonable bounds. Even if the development of
pesticide resistance is gradual, it eventually may be necessary to increase
the frequency of pesticide application to a point where the crop must be
discontinued due to excessive pesticide costs.
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Produktivitas, Equitabilitas dan Autonomi
There are numerous ways that higher productivity can contribute to
greater equitability. Returning to the example of irrigation, an improved
water supply increases productivity because it increases yields or provides
an opportunity to grow high-value crops. Along with the increase in
productivity there is greater stability for everyone if the water is distributed
according to needs, and greater stability can lead to greater equitability
because crop losses often do not afflict farmers at random. Before, when
the agriculture was rainfed, losses were more severe for farmers whose
land was poor in moisture retention and therefore vulnerable to drought.
With irrigation, their yields can be more equal.
However, greater productivity and stability can also lead to lower
equitability. If the overall supply of water is not sufficient to provide reliable
irrigation to all farmers in the area, only some of the farmers may receive
irrigation service. This will increase overall productivity of the area but will
also increase the spread of incomes. To take another example, higher
income productivity from cash crops such as temperate vegetables can be
associated with severe market fluctuations. Farmers who are lucky enough
to harvest when prices are high can make a fortune, but others (who
harvest when prices are low) may lose money. Finally, where equitability is
based on communal ownership, if productivity is increased by introducing
outside technologies or opening up to outside markets, communal land
ownership may not be compatible with the new modes of production or
marketing. Even outside influences not directly related to the technical side
of the agriculture may induce social changes that lead to individual land
ownership, which can lead eventually to unequal landholdings.
There are many ways that productivity can lead to greater
household autonomy. If productivity is achieved through labor
intensification, such as triple cropping that demands intensive work all year
round, people do not have so much time for village social activities (e.g.
religious festivals) that are mechanisms for village control over
households. If productivity and stability are attained through diversified
farming activities, advantages of synchro-nizing village agricultural
activities can be correspondingly diminished. If productivity is increased by
means of modern agricultural technology or integration with a market
economy or national bureaucracy, for which traditional village leaders have
no particular knowledge or influence, their authority is correspondingly
diminished. If every household is able to meet its own needs on a reliable
basis, it may feel no need for dependence on other households or village
authority. The same applies to autonomy with respect to the outside world.
A village with surplus production has the financial resources to take care of
itself (e.g. development and maintenance of its irrigation system) without
depending upon the government, middlemen or other outside sources of
assistance.
There can also be negative associations between productivity and
autonomy. Higher productivity may decrease autonomy if it frees people
from an attitude of everyone for himself due to scarcity. Higher production
may be at a cost of dependency on the outside world for inputs or markets.
At the same time, higher production can generate a surplus to be used for
the purchase of outside goods, sales of agricultural products to the
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outside, or extraction of some of the surplus by outsiders (e.g. by
government taxation or unscrupulous business arrangements). Some of
the surplus may be used by the local elite or by government to reduce
autonomy even further by reinforcing existing authority.
Ciri-ciri Struktural Agroekosistem
Agroecosystem structure is a consequence of the particular crops
and other components (weeds, animal pests, soil animals, microorganisms, etc.) in an agroecosystem, the way those components are
structured by farm management practices, and the way those components
are related functionally to one another. It could be useful for agroecosystem research to identify those structural system properties (at the
agroecosystem level of organization) that in fact have strong relationships
with the production properties. Such structural properties could prove
useful as guidelines for agroecosystem design.
Hubungan
Agroecosystem:
antara
Struktur
Agroecosystem
dan
Fungsi
Struktur Agroecosystem
Fungsi Agroecosystem
Intercropping
Gizi manusia
Intercropping
Gangguan hama
Annual/perennial crop rotation
Siklus hara mineral
Perennial/annual strip cropping on
slopes
Erosi tanah, Kompetisi tanaman
Institutions in irrigation societies
Suplai air irigasi
Double and triple cropping
Deplesi hara mikro tanah
Integration of crops and livestock
Pemeliharaan kesuburan tanah
Communications between innovative Difusi teknologi baru
farmers and others
Polikultur
Polyculture merupakan pertanian yang menerapkan multitanaman pada suatu ruang yang sama, “menirukan” diversitas dari
ekosistem alamiah, dan menghindarkan pola monokultur. Polikultur ini
meliputi pergiliran tanaman, multi-cropping, intercropping, companion
planting, gulma yang bermanfaat dan pertanaman lorong (alley cropping).
Polikultur, meskipun seringkali memerlukan lebih banyak tenaga
kerja, namun mempunyai beberapa keuntungan dibandingkan dengan
monokultur:
1. Diversitas tanaman dapat membantu menghindarkan kepekaan
monokultur terhadap gangguan penyakit. Misalnya, hasil
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penelitian yang idlakukan di China (reported in Nature)
menunjukkan bahwa penanaman beberapa varietas padi pada
sebidang lahan yang sama meningkatkan hasil sebesar 89%,
terutama karena adanya penurunan gangguan penyakit (94%).
2. Semakin besar ragam pertanaman dapat menyediakan habitat
untuk banyak spesies, sehingga meningkatkan biodiversitas
lokal. Hal ini merupakan satu contoh rekonsiliasi ekologi, atau
mengakomodasi biodiversitas di dalam bentang-lahan manusia.
Ini juga merupakan fungsi dari program pengendalian hama
secara biologis.
Multiple Cropping
1. Dalam pertanian, multiple cropping merupakan praktek menanam
dua jenis tanaman atau lebih pada sebidang lahan yang sama selama
satu musim pertumbuhan yang sama. Pola tanam ini merupakan
bentuk polikultur. Pola ini dapat berbentuk double-cropping, dimana
tanaman ke dua ditanam setelah tanaman pertama dipanen, atau
bentuk relay cropping, dimana tanaman ke dua ditanam sebelum
panen tanaman pertama. Contoh multi-cropping adalah tomatoes +
onions + marigold; tanaman marigolds mampu mengusir sebagian
hama tomat.
2. Multiple cropping ditemukan pada beragam tradisi pertanian di dunia.
Misalnya di kawasan Pegunungan Himalaya di India, praktek pertanian
yang disebut “baranaja” melibatkan penanaman 12 jenis tanaman
atau lebih pada sebidang lahan yang sama, termasuk berbagai tipe
kacang-kacangan, grams, dan millets; dan memanennya pada waktu
yang berbeda.
3. In the cultivation of rice, multiple cropping requires effective irrigation, especially
in areas with a dry season. Rain that falls during the wet season permits the
cultivation of rice during that period, but during the other half of the year, water
cannot be channeled into the rice fields without an irrigation system. The Green
Revolution in Asia led to the development of high-yield varieties of rice, which
required a substantially shorter growing season of 100 days, as opposed to
traditional varieties, which needed 150 to 180 days. Due to this, multiple
cropping became more prevalent in Asian countries.
4. Salah satu macam dari multiple-cropping adalah “intercropping”,
dimana tanaman tambahan ditanam pada ruang yang tersedia di
antara tanaman utama.
Contoh-contoh double cropping dan triple cropping yang lazim
dilakukan di Chiangmai Valley disajikan berikut ini. (Figure courtesy of
Multiple Cropping Project experiment station at Chiang Mai University,
Thailand.)
15
Sumber: http://www.gerrymarten.com/publicatons/small-scaleAgriculture.html
Pekarangan = Home-garden
Home gardens, also known as forest gardens, are found in humid
areas. They use inter-cropping to cultivate trees, crops, and livestock on
the same land. In Kerala in South India as well as in northeastern India,
they are the most common form of land use; they are also found in
Indonesia, One example combines coconut, black pepper, cocoa and
pineapple.
In many African countries, for example Zambia, Zimbabwe,
Tanzania, gardens are widespread in rural, periurban and urban areas and
they play an essential role in establishing food security. Most well known
are the Chaga or Chagga gardens on the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro in
Tanzania. These are an excellent example of an agroforestry system. In
many countries, women are the main actors in home gardening and food is
mainly produced for subsistence.
16
Tumpangsari dengan Pohon-pohon
Tree crops such as coconut, citrus and cinnamon can be planted 6 to 10 m apart. The
area in between is good for other crops such as coffee or cocoa, but especially for
regular interplanting of annual food crops (e.g. groundnuts, maize, cassava) or
vegetables. Monocrop tree crops such as oil palm can be interplanted for the first five
to six years, after which they can be underplanted with cover crops.
Tumpangsari tanaman pangan dan pohon (Sumber:
http://www.fao.org/docrep/V5290E/v5290e04.htm ..... diunduh 27/6/2011)
In Nepal, the home garden, literally known in Nepali as Ghar
Bagaincha, refers to the traditional land use system around a homestead,
where several species of plants are grown and maintained by household
members and their products are primarily intended for the family
consumption. The term “home garden” is often considered synonymous to
the kitchen garden. However, they differ in terms of function, size,
diversity, composition and features. In Nepal, 72% of households have
home gardens of an area 2-11% of the total land holdings (Gautam et al.,
2004). Because of their small size, the government has never identified
home gardens as an important unit of food production and it thereby
remains neglected from research and development. However, at the
household level the system is very important as it is the an important
source of quality food and nutrition for the rural poor and, therefore, are
important contributors to the household food security and livelihoods of
farming communities in Nepal. They are typically cultivated with a mixture
of annual and perennial plants that can be harvested on a daily or
seasonal basis. Biodiversity that has an immediate value is maintained in
home gardens as women and children have easy access to preferred food,
and for this reason alone we should promote home gardens as a key
element for a healthy way of life. Home gardens, with their intensive and
17
multiple uses, provide a safety net for households when food is scarce.
These gardens are not only important sources of food, fodder, fuel,
medicines, spices, herbs, flowers, construction materials and income in
many countries, they are also important for the in situ conservation of a
wide range of unique genetic resources for food and agriculture. Many
uncultivated, as well as neglected and underutilised species could make
an important contribution to the dietary diversity of local communities.
Polatanam Multi-strata
Struktur multilayer seperti pada ekosistem hutan alami terbentuk dalam waktu yang
lama. Dalam ekosistem seperti ini ada pohon yang tinggi, pohon medium dan perdu,
tumbuhan menjalar dan merayap dan tumbuhan bawah yang ternaungi. This layered
structure uses all the sun light available for plant growth, thereby reducing weeds, and
keeps the soil healthy. In the home garden, the layers can be filled with plants that are
of daily use to the household. This system mixes plants with short, medium and long
terms before maturity and harvest, similar to multiple cropping.
Sumber: http://www.fao.org/docrep/V5290E/v5290e04.htm ..... diunduh
27/6/2011
18
In addition to supplementing diet in times of difficulty, home
gardens promote whole-family and whole-community involvement in the
process of providing food. Children, the elderly, and those caring for them
can participate in this infield agriculture, incorporating it with other
household tasks and scheduling. This tradition has existed in many
cultures around the world for thousands of years.
These gardens exemplify polyculture, and conserve much crop
genetic diversity and heirloom plants that are not found in monocultures.
There are now efforts to apply a similar concept in temperate climates
(forest gardening).
Agroforestry = Forest gardens
1.
2.
3.
4.
Forest gardening is a food production and land management system
based on woodland ecosystems, but substituting trees (such as fruit
or nut trees), bushes, shrubs, herbs and vegetables which have yields
directly useful to humans. Making use of companion planting, these
can be intermixed to grow on multiple levels in the same area, as do
the plants in a forest.
In part based on the model of the Keralan home gardens, temperateclimate forest gardening was pioneered by the late Robert Hart on his
one eighth of an acre (500 m²) plot at Wenlock Edge in Shropshire.
Robert began the project over thirty years ago with the intention of
providing a healthy and therapeutic environment for himself and his
brother Lacon, who was born with severe learning disabilities.
Starting as relatively conventional smallholders, Robert soon
discovered that maintaining large annual vegetable beds, rearing
livestock and taking care of an orchard were tasks beyond their
strength. However, a small bed of perennial vegetables and herbs
they had planted was looking after itself with little intervention. This led
him to evolve the concept of the "forest garden". Based on the
observation that the natural forest can be divided into distinct layers or
"storeys", he used inter-cropping to develop an existing small orchard
of apples and pears into an edible polyculture landscape consisting of
seven levels.
Agroforestry adalah pola pertanaman yang memanfaatkan sinar
matahari dan tanah yang `berlapis-lapis` untuk meningkatkan produktivitas
lahan. Ambil contoh berikut ini. Pada sebidang tanah, seorang petani
menanam sengon (Paraserianthes falcataria) yang memiliki tajuk (canopy)
yang tinggi dan luas. Di bawahnya, sang petani menanam tanaman kopi
(Coffea spp) yang memang memerlukan naungan untuk berproduksi.
Lapisan terbawah di dekat permukaan tanah dimanfaatkan untuk
menanam empon-empon atau ganyong (Canna edulis) yang toleran/tahan
terhadap naungan. Bisa dimengerti bahwa dengan menggunakan pola
tanam agroforestry ini, dari sebidang lahan bisa dihasilkan beberapa
komoditas yang bernilai ekonomi. Akan tetapi sebenarnya pola tanam
agroforestry sendiri tidak sekedar untuk meningkatkan produktivitas lahan,
tetapi juga melindungi lahan dari kerusakan dan mencegah penurunan
kesuburan tanah melalui mekanisme alami.
19
Tanaman kayu yang berumur panjang diharapkan mampu
memompa zat-zar hara (nutrient) di lapisan tanah yang dalam, kemudian
ditransfer ke permukaan tanah melalui luruhnya biomasa. Mekanisme ini
juga mampu memelihara produktivitas tanaman yang berumur pendek,
seperti palawija. Mekanisme alami ini menyerupai ekosistem hutan alam,
yakni tanpa input dari luar, ekosistem mampu memelihara kelestarian
produksi dalam jangka panjang. Pola tanam agroforestry yang dianggap
paling mendekati struktur hutan alam adalah pekarangan atau kebun.
Pada pekarangan/kebun, tanaman-tanaman tumbuh secara acak
sehingga menciptakan struktur tajuk dan perakaran yang berlapis. Jadi
manfaat ganda dari pola agroforestry (yang ideal dan konsisten) adalah
peningkatan produktivitas dan pemeliharaan lingkungan.
Pola pertanaman yang diterapkan pada hutan jati di Jawa adalah
tumpangsari, yang merupakan salah satu pola agroforestry. Tumpangsari
di hutan jati di Jawa pada dasarnya sama dengan perladangan berpindah,
dalam hal: memanfaatkan pembukaan hutan baru yang tanahnya masih
subur. Sehingga tumpangsari sering disebut sebagai an improved shifting
cultivation. Prinsipnya tumpangsari yang konvensional hanya dilaksanakan
selama tanah masih subur (dan sinar matahari masih cukup untuk
palawija), sekitar 2-3 tahun pertama. Jika tidak ada input pemupukan oleh
petani maka tumpangsari sudah dilakukan selama lebih dari 3 tahun
dipastikan menghasilkan produktivitas yang rendah.
Sumber: http://coretan-elfaheem.blogspot.com/2011_01_01_archive.html .....
diunduh 27/6/2011)
20
Pada dasarnya pola tanam agroforestry dapat dipisahkan menjadi
dua yakni agroforesrty di dalam dan di luar kawasan hutan. Akhir-akhir ini
berkembang wacana bahwa pertanaman kayu di luar kawasan hutan lebih
menjanjikan daripada yang di dalam kawasan hutan. Sebagai misal,
bahan baku industri ukir Jepara pada saat ini sebagian besar disuplai oleh
kayu jati yang dihasilkan dari hutan rakyat di Gunung Kidul, dan bukan dari
hutan jati. Gejala ini menunjukkan bahwa potensi dan kualitas hutan
menurun setiap waktu, karena kurangnya rasa memiliki hutan sebagai
penyangga lingkungan.
Penggunaan lahan secara lestari dapat dilakukan dengan
,emerapkan praktek-praktek agroforestry. Agroforestry merupakan
pendekatan pertanian yang memanfaatkan jasa-jasa kombinasi antara
pohon, tanaman pangan semusim dan ternak. Therefore, knowledge on
selection of species combination and good management of trees and crops are
needed to maximize the production and positive effects of trees and to minimize
negative competitive effects on crops. However, empirical assessment of tree crop
combinations is laborious, cost expensive and time consuming. Suatu metode
untuk mengatasi kekurangan informasi ini adalah melalui pengembangan
model yang mengintegrasikan interaksi antara tanah-pohon-tanaman yang
menjadi komponen agroforestry.
Model WaNuLCAS dikembangkan untuk mengkaji interaksi pohontanah-tanaman semusim dalam beragam system agroforestry dimana
pohon dan tanaman pangan semusim ditanam pada sebidang lahan yang
sama (simultaneous dan sequential agroforestry).
Model WaNuLCAS (Sumber:
http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/af2/WaNuLCAS ..... diunduh
27/6/2011)
21
Sistem Hutan Rakyat
Pengertian Hutan Rakyat sebagaimana yang termaktub dalam
Undang-undang No.41 tahun 1999 dan Surat Keputusan Menteri
Kehutanan No.49/kpts-II/1997 adalah hutan yang tumbuh di atas tanah
yang dibebani hak milik dengan ketentuan minimal 0,25 ha dan penutupan
tajuk tanaman kayu-kayuan minimal 50% dan atau pada tahun pertama
jumlah batang minimal 500 batang/ha. Pada intinya hutan rakyat adalah
hutan yang dibangun pada lahan milik atau gabungan dari lahan milik
yang ditanami pohon dengan pembinaan dan pengelolaannya dilakukan
oleh pemiliknya atau suatu badan usaha seperti koperasi, dengan
berpedoman kepada kententuan-ketentuan yang berlaku.
Secara fisik hutan rakyat memiliki pola tanam yang beragam dan
berbeda di setiap daerah, baik cara memilih jenis yang dikembangkan
maupun cara penataannya di lapangana. Pada umumnya pola tanam yang
dikembangkan oleh masyarakat petani dapat diklasifikasikan pada 2 pola
tanam yaitu murni (monokultur) dan campuran.
1. Hutan Rakyat Murni
Hutan rakyat yang terdiri dari satu jenis tanaman pokok yang
ditanam dan diusahakan secara homogen (monokultur), seperti
di Pulau Jawa untuk jenis sengon, jati dan di Lampung untuk
jenis damar mata kucing. Dari jenis silvikultur pola tanam ini
memiliki kelebihan yaitu lebih mudah dalam pembuatan,
pengelolaan dan pengawasannya, namun kekurangannya yaitu
kurang tahan terhadap serangan hama penyakit dan angin,
juga kurang fleksibel karena tidak ada diversifikasi komoditi
sehingga ketahanan ekonominya kurang dan penyerapan
tenaga kerja bersifat musiman.
2.
Hutan Rakyat Campuran
a. Hutan Rakyat Campuran (Polyculture) dengan 2 – 5 jenis tanaman
kehutanan yang dikembangkan dan diusahakan, seperti sengon,
mahoni, dan suren, yang kombinasinya berbeda pada setiap daerah.
Dari segi silvikultur cara ini lebih baik dari pada hutan rakyat murni,
daya tahan terhadap hama penyakit dan angin lebih tinggi, perakaran
lebih berlapis dan dari segi ekonomi lebih fleksibel, hasil yang
diperoleh berkesinambungan dan tenaga kerja yang terserap lebih
banyak,
namun
pelaksanaannya
memerlukan
perencanaan,
pengelolaan dan pengawasan yang lebih baik dan terampil.
b. Hutan Rakyat Campuran dengan sistem agroforestry/wanatani:pola ini
merupakan bentuk usaha kombinasi kehutanan dengan cabang usaha
lainnya seperti perkebunan, pertanian, peternakan dan lain-lain secara
terpadu. Pola ini berorientasi pada optimalisasi pemanfaatan lahan
secara rasional, baik dari aspek ekonomis maupun aspek ekologis.
Penerapannya di lapangan dilakukan dengan cara pemanfaatan suatu
ruang tumbuh baik vertikal maupun horizontal dalam bentuk
penanaman campuran lebih dari satu jenis seperti jenis kayu-kayuan
(sengon, jati), buah-buahan (petai, nangka), tanaman industri (kopi,
22
melinjo), tanaman pangan (singkong, jagung), hijauan makanan ternak
(rumput gajah), tanaman obat-obatan (kapolaga, jahe), lebah madu
dan lainnya. Kelebihan pola tanam ini yaitu mempunyai daya tahan
yang kuat terhadap serangan hama, penyakit dan angin. Secara
ekonomis dapat diperoleh keuntungan ganda yang berkesinambungan
melalui panen harian, mingguan, bulanan dan tahunan, serta tenaga
kerja yang terserap akan lebih banyak dan berkelanjutan.
Beberapa contoh hutan rakyat campuran yang telah berhasil di
usahakan adalah di Klaten dan Wonosobo (Awang, dkk. 2001), dimana
komposisi tanaman yang diusahakan adalah :
a. Tanaman Kayu + Tanaman Perkebunana + Tanaman Semusim
b. Tanaman Kayu + Tanaman Perkebunana + Tanaman Buah
c. Tanaman Kayu + Tanaman Semusim + Tanaman Buah +
Tanaman Perkebunana
d. Tanaman Kayu dan Tanaman Perkebunan
Sistem Silvikultur
Beberapa praktek sistem silvikultur yang dilaksanakan di beberapa
daerah di Indonesia dalam rangka pengelolaan hutan rakyat adalah
(Tinjauan tentang pola tanam hutan rakyat, Nina Windawati, Pusat Litbang
Hutan Tanaman; dishut.jabarprov.go.id/... diakses 19/6/2011):
1. Sistem tebang habis dengan trubusan (THT)
Sistem tebang habis dengan trubusan biasanya dilakukan pada
hutan rakyat murni albizia dan jati yang ditumpangsarikan
dengan tanaman semusim sampai pohon albizia berumur ± 2
tahun. Seluruh tanaman albizia pada umur 5-6 tahun ditebang
habis, sedangkan tanaman jati biasanya di atas umur 20
tahunan baru ditebang. Untuk membentuk tegakan selanjutnya,
dipilih tunas yang tumbuh cukup banyak dari tunggul bekas
tebangan. Tunas dipilih 2 – 3 yang tumbuh baik, berbatang
lurus dan sehat. Pada umur 3 – 5 tunas-tunas tersebut dapat
dipungut lagi hasilnya. Berdasarkan pengalaman untuk
tanaman albizia di daerah Sukabumi dan Tasikmalaya (Jawa
Barat), tunggul yang diterapkan pertama (pohon induk) cukup
baik untuk menghasilkan tiga kali trubusan biasa dilakukan di
Desa Gunungsari, Bojolali dan Desa Sumberejo, Wonogiri,
Jawa Tengah. Sistem ini menghemat biaya pembuatan
tanaman namun kualitas tegakan yang dihasilkan mutunya
belum tentu sama dengan tegakan sebelumnya (kurang baik).
2. Sistem tebang habis dengan permudaan buatan (TPHB)
Sistem silvikultur tebang habis dengan permudaan buatan
dilaksanakan pada hutan rakyat yang sudah dikelola dengan
baik. Petani mempunyai lahan yang cukup luas dan modal
yang cukup. Sistem seperti ini dilaksanakan pada hutan rakyat
murni akan tetapi sistem ini masih jarang dijumpai di lapangan.
3. Sistem tebang pilih dengan permudaan alam (TPPA)
Sistem silvukultur tebang pilih dengan permudaan alam
dilakukan pada areal hutan rakyat campuran dan wanatani,
23
Yakni setelah menebang sejumlah pohon tertentu yang
dianggap sudah cukup umur sebagai pohon pengganti adalah
anakan setempat. Sistem ini telah diterapkan di Desa
Sumberejo, Bojolali, Wonogiri, Jawa Tengah dimana petani
hutan rakyat akan menebang bila tanaman benar-benar telah
siap tebang dengan beberapa kriteria (tebang pilih) yaitu
batangnya telah cukup untuk membuat tiang rumah atau
diperkirakan berdiameter sekitar 30 cm dan petani menebang
jika benar-benar membutuhkan. Setelah menebang, petani
tidak menanami areal bekas tebangan, cukup mengandalkan
permudaan alam yang memang jumlahnya cukup berlimpah,
sehingga tidak membuat bibit tanaman buatan. Keadaan sistem
silvikultur seperti diatas, biasanya menunjukan bahwa hutan
rakyat belum dikelola secara baik karena petani hanya
memungut beberapa pohon sesuai kebutuhan dan akibat
beragamnya umur dan jenis pada satu lokasi. Kelemahan
sistem silvikultur tersebut adalah tidak didapatkannya jumlah
kayu yang cukup pada sautu waktu tertentu dengan kualitas
yang baik, karena bibit yang berasal dari kongkoak belum tentu
dengan kualitas mempunyai mutu yang baik.
4. Sistem tebang pilih dengan permudaan buatan (TPPB)
Sistem silvikultur tebang pilih dengan permudaan buatan,
dilakukan diaman pohon-pohon yang akan ditebang dipilih
menurut keperluannya dan permudaanya dilakukan dengan
menanami kembali bekas tebangan tersebut dengan bibit
/anakan yang telah dipersiapkan sebelumnya, akan tetapi
seringkali biji yang dipakai bukan berasal dari pohon yang plus,
tetapi dari pohon tebangan disekitar lokasi, sehingga kualitas
bibit kurang baik. Sistem silvikultur seperti diatas dijumpai pada
hutan rakyat yang berbentuk campuran dan hutan agroforestry/
wanatani.
Intercropping = Tumpangsari
Intercropping is the practice of growing two or more crops in close
proximity. The most common goal of intercropping is to produce a greater
yield on a given piece of land by making use of resources that would
otherwise not be utilized by a single crop. Careful planning is required,
taking into account the soil, climate, crops, and varieties. It is particularly
important not to have crops competing with each other for physical space,
nutrients, water, or sunlight. Examples of intercropping strategies are
planting a deep-rooted crop with a shallow-rooted crop, or planting a tall
crop with a shorter crop that requires partial shade.
When crops are carefully selected, other agronomic benefits are
also achieved. Lodging-prone plants, those that are prone to tip over in
wind or heavy rain, may be given structural support by their companion
crop. Delicate or light sensitive plants may be given shade or protection, or
otherwise wasted space can be utilized. An example is the tropical multitier system where coconut occupies the upper tier, banana the middle tier,
24
and pineapple, ginger, or leguminous fodder, medicinal or aromatic plants
occupy the lowest tier.
Proses Tumpangsari
Keberhasilan tumpangsari jagung dan kedelai melibatkan beragam proses
agroekosistem. For best ecological results, the corn and soybeans are planted
at specific predetermined distances at the same time of year. The corn and
soybeans create a microclimate of humidity, as well as a root system and
groundcover which effectively resists drought and erosion. Another
advantage is use of conservation tillage which is compatible with the
ecological longterm advantages of intercropping commercial annual grains
and legumes.
Sumber: http://www.freepatentsonline.com/6631585.html ..... diunduh 27/6/2011
Intercropping of compatible plants also encourages biodiversity, by
providing a habitat for a variety of insects and soil organisms that would not
be present in a single crop environment. This biodiversity can in turn help to
limit outbreaks of crop pests (Altieri 1994) by increasing the diversity or
abundance of natural enemies, such as spiders or parasitic wasps. Increasing
the complexity of the crop environment through intercropping also limits
the places where pests can find optimal foraging or reproductive conditions.
Derajat overlapping spatial dan temporer di antara dua jenis
tanaman dapat beragam, tetapi persyaratan keduanya harus dipenuhi
agar supaya suatu pola tanam menjadi “intercropping”. Berbagai tipe
intercropping dapat terjadi dengan derajat overlapping spatial dan
temporer yang berbeda-beda.
Beberapa tipe intercropping yang penting adalah:
25




Mixed intercropping, merupakan bentuk tumpang-sari yang
paling mendasar, dimana komponen tanaman pangan semusim
dicampur secara total dalam ruang lahan yang tersedia.
Row-cropping melibatkan tanaman-tanaman komponennya
yang ditata dalam barisan berselang-seling. Pola seperti ini
juga dapat disebut sebagai “pertanaman lorong” atau “alley
cropping”. Variasi dari “row cropping” adalah “strip cropping”,
dimana barisan-rangkap atau strip suatu tanaman diselangseling dengan barisan tanaman lainnya.
Intercropping juga menerapkan penanaman jenis tanaman
yang tumbuhnya cepat dengan jenis tanaman yang tumbuhnya
lambat, sehingga jenis tanaman yang tumbuhnya cepat dapat
dipanen lebih dahulu sebelum jenis tanaman yang tumbuhnya
lambat menjadi tua (masak).
Relay cropping, tanaman ke dua ditanam selama masa
pertumbuhan tanaman pertama, seringkali mendekati masa
reproduktif atau pembuahan tanaman pertama; sehingga
tanaman pertama dipanen untuk menyediakan ruangan bagi
tanaman ke dua untuk tumbuh sepenuhnya.
Sistem usahatani tumpangsari tanaman pangan semusim dengan
tanaman pohon (misalnya kelapa) banyak ditemukan di Asia, pola tanam
jangka panjang, tingkat integrasi rendah hingga medium antara tanaman
dan ternak. (FAO, 1984a from McDowell and Hildebrand, 1980).
Skematis tata ruang dalam system tumpangsari kelapa dengan tanaman pangan
semusim (Sumber: http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/af298e/af298E01.htm .....
diunduh 27/6/2011)
Tanaman pangan semusim ditanam sebagai tanaman sela di
antara tanaman kelapa di Sri Lanka (Liyanage et al., 1986)
26
Tipe
tanaman
1.Tanaman
pangan
Ubi-ubian
Serealia
Legume
Buahbuahan
Jenis anaman
Cassava Manihot esculenta
Sweet PotatoIpomea batatas
Taro Colocasia spp.
Yams Dioscorea spp.
Finger millet Eleusine coracana
Maize Zea mays
SorghumS orghum bicolor
CowpeaVigna unguiculata
Green gram Vigna radiata
Groundnut Arachis hygopaea
Soybean Glycine max
Winged
bean
Psophocarpus
tegragonolus
BananaMusa spp.
Citrus Citrus spp.
Papaya Carica papaya
Passion Fruit Passiflora edulis
Pineapple Ananas comosus
Pomegranate Punica granatum
2.Spices dan Arecanut Areca catechu
condiments
Betel leaves Piper betel
Chillies Capsicum spp.
Ginger Zingiber officinale
Turmeric Curcuma longa
3.
Minor Black pepper Piper nigrum
export
(cash) crops
Cacao Theobroma cacao
Cinnamon Cinamon zeylanicum
Clove Syzygium aromaticum
Coffee Coffea spp.
Nutmeg Myristica fragrans
4. Lainnya
Pasture grass Brachiaria miliiformis
Sesame (oil seed) Sesamum
indicum
Zone
iklim
basah
Interm
ediate
wet
zone
Interme
diate dry
zone
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
27
Model ekonomi rumahtangga pengelola system usahatani
tumpangsari tanaman pohon, tanaman pangan semusim dan ternak
Sumber: http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/af298e/af298E01.htm ..... diunduh
27/6/2011
Jasa-jasa yang dihasilkan oleh system tumpangsari (Sumber:
http://cropscience.ch/?p=13 ….. diunduh 27/6/2011)
28
Sistem tumpangsari jagung-kacang-nanas (Sumber:
http://didierruef.photoshelter.com/galleryimage/Archives/G0000i9eq8QB5kx0/I0000fvxRkqx3M18 ..... diunduh 27/6/2011)
Sistem Produksi Tanaman
Cropping system (Pola Tanam) beragam di antara usahatani
tergantung pada sumberdaya yang tersedia dan kendala-kendala yang
dihadapi; kondisi geography dan agroklimat; kebijakan pemerintah;
tekanan social, ekonomi dan politik; dan filosofi serta budaya petani.
Shifting cultivation (or slash and burn) is a system in which forests are burnt,
releasing nutrients to support cultivation of annual and then perennial crops
for a period of several years.
Then the plot is left fallow to regrow forest, and the farmer moves to a new
plot, returning after many more years (10-20). This fallow period is
shortened if population density grows, requiring the input of nutrients
(fertilizer or manure) and some manual pest control. Annual cultivation is
the next phase of intensity in which there is no fallow period. This requires
even greater nutrient and pest control inputs.
Perkembangan industrialisasi mendorong penerapan system
monokultur, dimana satu jenis tanaman ditanam dengan sekala luas.
Because of the low biodiversity, nutrient use is uniform and pests tend to
build up, necessitating the greater use of pesticides and fertilizers.[48]
Multiple cropping, in which several crops are grown sequentially in one
year, and intercropping, when several crops are grown at the same time
are other kinds of annual cropping systems known as polycultures.
29
In tropical environments, all of these cropping systems are
practiced. In subtropical and arid environments, the timing and extent of
agriculture may be limited by rainfall, either not allowing multiple annual
crops in a year, or requiring irrigation. In all of these environments
perennial crops are grown (coffee, chocolate) and systems are practiced
such as agroforestry. In temperate environments, where ecosystems were
predominantly grassland or prairie, highly productive annual cropping is
the dominant farming system.
The last century has seen the intensification, concentration and
specialization of agriculture, relying upon new technologies of agricultural
chemicals (fertilizers and pesticides), mechanization, and plant breeding
(hybrids and GMO's). In the past few decades, a move towards
sustainability in agriculture has also developed, integrating ideas of socioeconomic justice and conservation of resources and the environment
within a farming system. This has led to the development of many
responses to the conventional agriculture approach, including organik
agriculture, urban agriculture, community supported agriculture, ecological
or biological agriculture, integrated farming and holistic management, as
well as an increased trend towards agricultural diversification.
Praktek-praktek Produksi Pertanian
Pengolahan tanah merupakan praktek membajak tanah untuk
mempersiapkan penanaman benih/bibit atau untuk membenamkan pupuk
atau mengendalikan gangguan hama-penyakit dan gulma. Intensitas
pengolahan tanah sangat beragam, mulai dari cara konvensional hingga
tanpa olah tanah. Hal ini dapat menyuburkan tanah karena
menghangatkan tanah, memasukkan pupuk dan mengendalikan gulma,
tetapi juga menjaga tanah lebih tahan erosi, memacu dekomposisi bahan
organik tanah dengan melepaskan CO2, dan mereduksi kelombahan dan
diversitas organism tanah.
Pest control includes the management of weeds, insects/mites,
and diseases. Chemical (pesticides), biological (biocontrol), mechanical
(tillage), and cultural practices are used. Cultural practices include crop
rotation, culling, cover crops, intercropping, composting, avoidance, and
resistance. Integrated pest management attempts to use all of these
methods to keep pest populations below the number which would cause
economic loss, and recommends pesticides as a last resort.
Nutrient management includes both the source of nutrient inputs
for crop and livestock production, and the method of utilization of manure
produced by livestock. Nutrient inputs can be chemical inorganik fertilizers,
manure, green manure, compost and mined minerals. Crop nutrient use
may also be managed using cultural techniques such as crop rotation or a
fallow period. Manure is used either by holding livestock where the feed
crop is growing, such as in managed intensive rotational grazing, or by
spreading either dry or liquid formulations of manure on cropland or
pastures.
30
Rencana Pengelolaan Hara (Pupuk)
A nutrient management plan is an accounting of all nutrients present on
the farm as well as all of the nutrients coming onto the farm in the form of
commercial fertilizers or manure. The plan balances these nutrients with
the amount of nutrients required for crop growth.
Komponen-komponen dari rencana pengelolaan hara adalah:
 Peta tanah dengan intentitas lokasi.
 Rencana pertanaman.
 Rencana praktek konservasi tanah dan air.
 Pengumpulan pupuk kandang dan fasilitas simpanannya.
 Kandungan hara pupuk kandang.
 Rencana aplikasi pupuk kandang.
 Catatan, termasuk uji tanah, rekomendasi pupuk, aplikasi pupuk
kandang, dan estimasi hasil produksi.
Sumber: http://www.ca.uky.edu/agc/pubs/ip/ip71/ip71.htm …..
diunduh 27/6/2011)
An integrated nutrient model developed quite some time ago was a
successful programme but it has not been popularized or has not
been well adopted by large number of farmers. There should be a
follow up study to see the impact on soil fertility management and
to look on how best we can promote to wider areas.
31
Pengelolaan unsur hara tanaman secara terpadu (Sumber:
http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ag120e/AG120E10.htm ..... diunduh
27/6/2011)
Water management is where rainfall is insufficient or variable,
which occurs to some degree in most regions of the world. Some farmers
use irrigation to supplement rainfall. In other areas, farmers use a fallow
year to conserve soil moisture to use for growing a crop in the following
year. Agriculture represents 70% of freshwater use worldwide
Jumlah air yang diperlukan untuk mengairi suatu area lahan
tergantung beberapa faktor penting, yaitu:
1. Sifat Tanaman
2. Siklus pertumbuhan tanaman
3. Kondisi iklim
4. Tipe dan kondisi tanah
5. Topografi
6. Efisiensi penyaluran air
7. Efisiensi aplikasi lapangan
8. Kualitas air
9. Efektivitas pengelolaan air
Few of these factors remain constant, so that the quantity of water
required will vary from day to day, and particularly from one season to the
next. The selection of a small scale irrigation system needs to take all of
the above factors into account. The crop takes its water from moisture held
in the soil in the root zone. The soil therefore effectively acts as a water
storage for the plants, and the soil moisture needs replenishing before the
32
moisture level falls to what is known as the "Permanent Wilting Point"
where irreversible damage to the crop can occur. The maximum capacity
of the soil for water is when the soil is "saturated", although certain crops
do not tolerate water-logged soil and in any case this can be a wasteful
use of water. In all cases there is an optimum soil moisture level at which
plant growth is maximized . The art of efficient irrigation is to try to keep the
moisture level in the soil as close to the optimum as possible.
Teladan Kacang-tanah
Air (lengas) tanah merupakan faktor pembatas penting bagi
pertumbuhan tanaman dalam produksi kacangtanah.
Kacangtanah
membutuhkan air 600 700 mm selama siklus hidupnya untuk
mendapatkan hasil yang tinggi. Kebutuhan air ini dipenuhi dari air hujan,
irrigation atau simpanan air (lengas) tanah. Akan tetapi yang penting
bukan hanya jumlah total air yang diterima oleh tanaman. Waktu turunnya
hujan atau irigasi juga sangat berpengaruh terhadap hasil tanaman dan
kualitasnya.
Ada tiga periode penting dalam pertumbuhan tanaman untuk
dicukupi kebutuhan airnya:
 Pada saat tanam untuk menjamin perkecambahan
 Sekitar 50 - 100 hari setelah tanah ketika ginofor memasuki
tanah dan polong mulai berkembang. Periode ini sangat kritis
kebutuhan airnya.
 Pengisian polong hingga pemasakan polong.
The water absorbed by the groundnut during the first month after sowing is
relatively small. Hence the very early growth phase after seedling emergence
is not highly sensitive to moisture stress. The period of 6-8 weeks after
sowing when the flowering is vigorous is very sensitive to moisture stress.
At the peak of flowering, the root system is less efficient and the demand for
water is high. So, this period is most sensitive to any moisture deficiency in
the soil. It will be difficult for pegs to penetrate the soil if there is any
prolonged dry spell during this stage of the crop. Soil moisture deficit during
the vegetative phase generally delays flowering and maturity, reducing the
crop growth and yield. Moisture stress during flowering causes flower drop,
and also impairs pollination. The early phase of pod setting is especially
sensitive to any soil moisture deficit and this reflects on decreased pod
weight. Very often rain fed groundnut crop experiences soil moisture stress
when rains fail during the monsoon season.
Laju pertumbuhan tanaman biasanya merupakan fungsi dari
kandungan lengas-tanah:
33
Sumber: http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ah810e/AH810E04.htm .....
diunduh 28/6/2011
Praktek budidaya tanaman seperti kultivasi-kontur pada lahanlahan yang miring, mulsa permukaan, inter-cultivation, dan pengendalian
gulma yang tepat, dapat membantu konservasi lengas tanah untuk
mengatasi kekurangan air hujan selama pertumbuhan tanaman.
Penyemprotan 2% urea pada saat tanaman mengalami cekaman lengas
tanah dapat meringankan dampak cekaman air.
Irigasi kacang tanah:
Hal-hal yang harus diperhatikan adalah:
 Mengapa hasil kacangtanah seringkali rendah kalau ditanam
pada kondisi tadah hujan?
 Bagaimana irigasi dapat membantu kacangtanah?
 What is the advantage of pre-sowing irrigation in groundnut
cultivation?
 Kapan
puncak kebutuhan air selama pertumbuhan
kacangtanah?
 Mengapa irigasi sangat penting pada fase pemebentukan
polong?
 Apa yang terjadi kalau air tanah berlebihan pada fase
pemasakan polong kacangtanah?
Groundnut is mainly grown under rain fed situation. Only 19% of
groundnut area in India is irrigated. Groundnut crop is exposed to drought
conditions very often during its growth and consequently the yields are
lower than the potential yield. So, if the farmers want higher groundnut
yields, the answer is irrigation if water is available.
34
Bagaimana irigasi dapat memperbaiki kacangtanah?
 Memungkinkan pemanfaatan sarana produksi secara efisien
 Meningkatkan hasil polong
 Memperbaiki kualitas polong dan biji
 Mengurangi masalah aflatoxin
 Memperbaiki reliability dan mengurangi risiko
 Meningkatkan profitabilitas
Allowing seed to remain in dry soil for several days may result in poor
germination and seedling vigor.
So, irrigation prior to sowing is
recommended. Excessive irrigation during early plant growth stages (first 50
days after planting) may result in excessive vegetative growth and shallow
root development. Irrigation during early vegetative growth stages is
recommended only to limit severe water stress. Once pegging and pod
formation has begun (about 50 days after planting) it is recommended that
the pegging zone be kept moist; this facilitates the uptake of calcium by pods
- essential for seed development. Peak water use occurs at about 12 to 16
weeks from emergence during pod fill and maturity and can be as high as 75
mm per week. During pod fill it is essential to maintain adequate moisture in
the pegging zone to achieve maximum kernel quality through calcium
absorption.
Cekaman air selama periode pembentukan polong dan awal
pengisian polong dapat mereduksi hasil akhir kacangtanah. Sehingga
irigasi pada saat pembentukan polong sangat penting.
Irigasi yang berlebihan salama fase pendewasaan tanaman
kacangtanah (100 hari setelah tanam) dapat meningkatkan risiko
gangguan penyakit polong dan daun, kerusakan ginofor dan kemasakan
polong yang tidak seragam selama panen. Kalau lahan terlalu kering,
irigasi ringan dapat membantu / memudahkan panen. Akan tetapi, kontrol
dalam praktek irigasi sangat penting dan tanaman harus segera dipanen
supaya biji tidak berkecambah di dalam polong.
Fase pertumbuhan Kebutuhan irigasi
Kondisi lengas tanah yang bagus sangat diperlukan.
Germination And
Irigasi
dapat
menjamin
kepastian
jadwal
Emergence
penanaman.
Kacangtanah toleran terhadap cekaman air ringan
Vegetative
pada fase vegetative ini. Cekaman air ringan pada
fase ini dapat menguntungkan.
Tidak ada cekaman air pada fase ini, sangat sensitif.
Initiasi ginofor
Irigasi
Pembentukan dan
Tidak ada cekaman air. Irigasi
pengisian polong
Mengurangi penggunaan air kalau tanaman menjadi
Pemasakan
dewasa/ tua
Sumber:http://vasatwiki.icrisat.org/index.php/Soil_moisture_relationships_
and_irrigation_ in_groundnut ..... diunduh 28/6/2011
35
Pertanian Modern
Pertanian modern merupakan istilah yang digunakan untuk
mendeskripsikan beragam praktek produksi pertanian yang dilakukan oleh
petani. Istilah ini mengisyaratkan adanya inovasi, kemitraan dan perbaikan
yang dilakukan secara terus menerus oleh petani untuk mencapai
keberlanjutan produksi yang lebih baik kualitasnya dengan
meminimumkan dampak negative terhadap lingkungan.
Safety = Keamanan
The agriculture industry works with government agencies and other
organizations to ensure that farmers have access to the technologies
required to support modern agriculture practices. Farmers are supported
by education and certification programs that ensure they apply agricultural
practices with care and only when required.
Sustainabilitas = Keberlanjutan
Technological advancements help provide farmers with tools and
resources to make farming more sustainable. New technologies have
given rise to innovations like conservation tillage, a farming process which
helps prevent land loss to erosion, water pollution and enhances carbon
sequestration.
Tujuh Dimensi Pertanian Berkelanjutan
Pada tingkat rumahtangga petani, dengan profesinya yang
alamiah, mempunyai hubungan langsung dengan alam. Untuk dapat
berkelanjutan pada level ini, hubungan dengan alam harus ramah
ekologis. Secara konkrit hal ini bermakna sbb:
a) Pengelolaan hama secara ekologis menggantikan penggunaan
pestisida;
b) Pengelolaan kesuburan tanah terpadu menggantikan
penggunaan pupuk kimia;
c) Memanfaatkan biodiversitas untuk menyusun polikultur,
menggantikan monokultur;
d) Strategi pemuliaan tanaman yang menghasilkan spesies yang
sesuai dengan praktek budidaya ramah lingkungan,
menggantikan benih yang “kecanduan” bahan kimia.
e) Konservasi tanah dan air untuk menanggulangi erosi dan
deplesi air;
f) Metode
pemeliharaan ternak yang “humanis” untuk
menggantikan system produksi masal atau “factory farming of
animals”; dan,
g) instead of a fixation on genes and chemical substances, we
work in partnership with the living formative energies of Nature
through, for instance, the use of bio-dynamic preparations and
other bio-dynamic practices.
36
Sumber: http://www.cadi.ph/sustainable_agriculture.htm ..... diunduh
28/6/2011
Dimensi dan Tantangan Strategis Pertanian berkelanjutan
Dimension
Keramahan ekologis
Associative
Economics
Keadilan social
Kepekaan budaya
Holistik dan lebih
spiritual
Teknologi tepat guna
Pengembangan
potensi sumberdaya
manusia
Tantangan Strategis
"Safe Pesticides"; chemical fertilizers; monoculture;
chemically addicted seeds; soil erosion and water scarcity;
factory farming; methodological materialism (nature as a
biological machine)
WTO.
Agreement
on
Agriculture;
"Organik
Commercialism;" Lack of integration; Commodity-based
polyculture.
Traditional politics of
exploitation. Appropriation.
Disempowerment.
Neglect and collapse of indigenous knowledge systems
and farming culture.
Reductionism; Materialism; Fragmentation
Commodification and molecular reduction of humans and
living nature by "environmentally friendly" biotechnology.
Non-diffusion of good technologies.
Mencapai "deep sustainability" mengatasi bias gender
Sumber: http://www.cadi.ph/sustainable_agriculture.htm
28/6/2011
.....
diunduh
37
Affordabilitas = Keterjangkauan
Tujuan praktek pertanian modern adalah membantu petani
menyediakan suplai pangan yang terjangkau untuk memenuhi kebutuhan
manusia yang semakin banyak jumlahnya. Dengan system usahatani
modern, lebih banyak tanaman dapat ditanam pada sedikit lahan,
sehingga memungkinkan petani menyediakan bahan pangan yang
terjangkau harganya.
Tipe-tipe sistem usahatani (Farming system):
1. Commerical Farming – menanam tanaman / memelihara
ternak untuk mendapatkan profit
2. Subsistence Farming – memproduksi bahan pangan hanya
untuk mencukupi kebutuhan keluarga sendiri
3. Arable Farming – melibatkan penanaman tanaman
4. Pastoral Farming – melibatkan pemeliharaan ternak
5. Intensive Farming – kalau ukuran usahataninya kecil
dibandingkan dengan sejumlah besar tenaga kerja dan
input produksi yang dibutuhkan untuk usahatani.
6. Extensive Farming – kalau ukuran usahataninya snagat
besar dibandingkan dengan input uang (modal), tenaga
kerja dan saprodi lainnya yang dibutuhkan..
Usahatani = FARMING SYSTEMS
INPUT - semua material yang masuk ke dalam system usahatani
dan dapat dikelompokkan menjadi input fisik (misalnya air
hujan/irigasi, lahan / tanah) dan input manusia (mislanya
tenagakerja dan uang/modal)
PROSES – semua proses yang berlangsung dalam system
usahatani untuk mengubah input menjadi output (misalnya
menanam benih, penyiangan gulma, pemanenan hasil dll.)
OUTPUTS – adalah hasil-hasil dari usahatani (yaitu bahan pangan,
hasil ternak dan pakan ternak).
38
Sumber: http://obsgeogblog.blogspot.com/2009/11/igcse-agriculturalprocesses.html ….. diunduh 28/6/2011
Keamanan Pangan, Label dan Regulasi
Food security issues also coincide with food safety and food
labeling concerns. Currently a global treaty, the BioSafety Protocol,
regulates the trade of GMOs. The EU currently requires all GMO foods to
be labeled, whereas the US does not require transparent labeling of GMO
foods. Since there are still questions regarding the safety and risks
associated with GMO foods, some believe the public should have the
freedom to choose and know what they are eating and require all GMO
products to be labeled.
GM foods have been the subject of much controversy. Advocates feel that
GM foods will help provide food to the world’s continually expanding
population. Since the number of people on earth keeps increasing (over 6
billion, and expected to double within 50 years), and the amount of land
suitable for farming remains constant, more food must be grown in the same
amount of space. Genetic engineering can make plants that will give farmers
better yields through several different methods.
Crops can be harmed or destroyed by many different factors. Insects, weeds,
disease, cold temperatures and drought can all adversely affect plants
resulting in lower yields for the farmer. Genetic engineering techniques can
be used to introduce genes, creating plants that are resistant or tolerant to
these factors. Bt corn is an example of the introduction of a pest resistance
gene. Monsanto has created strains of soybeans, corn, canola and cotton that
are resistant to the weed-killer Roundup®. The weed-killer can be sprayed
over the entire crop, killing all plants except the transgenic crop intended to
be grown. Scientists have also taken a gene from a cold-water fish and
introduced it into potatoes to protect the seedlings against sudden frost.
39
These methods all create plants that are more likely to survive and be
healthy, thereby increasing the production of farmer’s fields.
Genetic modification can also be used to change the properties of the crop,
adding nutrients, making them taste better, or reducing the growing time. A
good example of adding nutrients to food is the development of “golden”
rice. Many countries in the world rely on rice as their primary food source.
Unfortunately, rice is missing many essential vitamins and minerals, so
people whose diet is based on rice are often malnourished. One of the most
severe consequences of this is blindness caused by vitamin A deficiency.
Researchers at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Institute for Plant
Sciences genetically engineered rice, making it high in vitamin A. The group
hoped to distribute the rice for free to any third world country requesting it.
Sumber: http://www.scq.ubc.ca/genetically-modifiedfoods/ ….. diunduh 28/6/2011
Dampak LIngkungan
Pertanian menimbulkan biaya eksternal bagi masyarakat, melalui
penggunaan pestisida, runoff dan pencucian hara, penggunaan air yang
berlebihan, dan lainnya.
Pengaruh utama
lingkungan alam.
system
produksi
pertanian
terhadap
40
Sumber: Anderson and Strutt 1996, p. 156 (http://www4.agr.gc.ca/AAFCAAC/display-afficher.do?id=1179248421010 ….. diunduh 27/6/2011)
Kegiatan pertanian dapat menimbulkan berbagai dampak lingkungan, di
antaranya adalah berikut ini.
Dampak akibat Penyiapan lahan pertanian
Dampak terhadap Lingkungan Alami
 Perubahan sumberdaya yang kritis bagi kehidupan – kualitas
air, aliran air tawar, pasang-surut, kualitas udara ambient,
siklus hara, dll.
 Reduksi jumlah, diversitas dan productivitas spesies tanaman
dan ternak
 Loss of natural services (eg waste absorbtion capacity, erosion
control, and groundwater recharge)
 Reduction in social benefits and services (eg recreation,
aesthetic enjoyment, conservation education, medical research)
 Secondary impacts resulting from improved access to
wilderness areas (e.g. tourism, poaching, disturbance to
wildlife, illegal conversion to other land" use, illegal harvesting)
Dampak terhadap Wetlands
 Wetland clearing leading to salinity intrusion, loss of functional
goods and services produced by wetland, reduced habitat for
aquatic and migratory birds
41


Drainage of wetland causing reduced freshwater fisheries
production, reduced river baseflows and water supplies
Mangroves clearing causing adverse impact on estuarine
fisheries, reduction in wildlife habitats, loss of a natural barrier
against flooding and erosion
Dampak terhadap Hutan
 Destruction of wildlife habitats and loss of bio-diversity
 Destabilisation of the local hydrology, both for surface and
groundwater (e.g. increased flooding and flood frequency, dry
streams, reduced/increased base flows)
 Logging operations and access roads causing increased runoff,
sedimentation of surface watercourses, reduced water supply
and quality
 Increased sediment in aquatic environments causing temporary
or permanent covering of benthic organisms increased
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), placing fish and aquatic
flora under oxygen stress sediment of high nutrient content
carried to still waterbodies (e.g. lakes, lagoons) resulting in a
high BOD
 Siltation of reservoirs causing a reduction in capacity, reduction
in power generation and shortening of project's life span
 Physical damage to historical artifacts and landforms
 Changes to the micro-climate (e.g. humidity, precipitation)
Dampak terhadap Lahan Arid dan Semi-arid
 Many projects in drylands are intended to ameliorate a
progressive decrease in environmental quality and agricultural
productivity, e.g. soil and water conservation projects, forest
and rangelands management projects, flood control and
irrigation. These free-standing agricultural projects can have a
positive impact on the environment, though they may
sometimes yield negative impacts as described for land
conversion above and farming operations below
Dampak lingkungan selama operasi pertanian
Dampak Sosial-ekonomi
 Dampak positif social-ekonomi
o Peningkatan kesempatan kerja
o Pendapatan lebih tinggi
o Status gizi lebih baik
o Perbaikan ketahanan pangan
o Penguatan ekonomi local dan keterkaitannya
o Ketahanan penguasaan lahan.

Dampak negative social-ekonomi
o loss of traditional forest products
o loss of farm labour to cash crop agriculture
o social conflict of local population with agricultural settlers
42
o social conflicts within local population due to increasing
wealth differentials
o secondary land clearing for agriculture may open access
to nearby forests not targeted for development
o increased land values and rents
o shifts in ownership patterns away from the poor
o dependence on cash crops to the exclusion
of
subsistence crops
o spread of pests and diseases, loss of local resistant
varieties
o women's livelihoods and status adversely affected (e.g.
agricultural projects increasing women's burdens without
providing additional assets or income
o increased incidence of waterborne diseases with irrigated
agriculture, both for humans and livestock
Pengelolaan Lahan yang Jelek
 change in the type of vegetation cover reducing soil quality over
the medium or long-term
 increased soil erosion from wind and rain erosion effects
 increased leaching of nutrients
 fertiliser runoff contaminating surface water-bodies by
increasing BOD levels which cause stress to fish which are
conservation-worthy, commercially significant, or depended
upon locally
 pesticide runoff contaminating surface or ground-water" contamination of public potable water supplies
 contamination of surface water-bodies leading to stress for
conservation-worthy, commercially significant, or locally valued
fish
Sumberdaya Air
 water quality locally and downstream adversely affected by
siltation following increased erosion from new crops
 aquatic benthic communities harmed due to silt deposition
 quality of potable water supplies reduced if organik based, silt
can cause stress to aquatic flora and fauna due to increased
BOD levels
 water quality adversely affected by human and agricultural
wastes
 direct increases in BOD and Chemical Oxygen Demand levels,
increasing stress on aquatic flora and fauna
 indirect increases in BOD due to feeding of aquatic flora
Kualitas Udara
 methyl bromide, yang digunakan sebagai
fumigasi untuk
gudang hasil tanaman, merupakan substansi yang dapat
merusak ozon.
43
Pentingnya Dampak Lingkungan
Pentingnya dampak lingkungan tertentu dapat divaluasi dengan jalan
membandingkan besaran dampak terduga (misalnya lokasi, volume,
konsentrasi) dengan baku mutu lingkungan yang relevan. Pentingya
dampak juga harus dinilai dengan mempertimbangkan prioritas dan
preferensi masyarakat terhadap lingkungan, yang mana hal ini belum ada
baku mutu kuantitatifnya.
Baku mutu lingkungan
 Regulasi Bahan Agrokimia
o fertilisers (apply country regulations)
o pesticides (apply country regulations)
 Baku mutu kualitas air
o potable water supplies (apply country standards)
o wastewater discharge (apply country standards
wastewaters, fisheries, and bathing)
 National and local planning regulations
o legislation concerning change in landuse
o regional/local strategic landuse plans
o strategic watershed plans
o landuse suitability recommendations/plans
 National legislation to protect certain areas
o national parks
o forest reserves
o nature reserves
 International agreements to protect certain areas
o World Heritage Convention
o Ramsar Convention on wetlands
 Conservation/preservation of species
o national legislation
o international conventions
o CITES Convention on trade in endangered species
for
Prioritas dan Preferensi Lingkungan
 Government policies for environmental protection (including,
where appropriate, incorporation of objectives from Country
Environmental Studies/Environmental Action Plans etc.)
 Environmental priorities of international, national and/or local
Non- Governmental Organisations
 Environmental priorities of trade associations representing
agricultural developers
 Participation of affected people in project planning to determine
priorities for environmental protection, including:
o public health
o revered areas, flora and fauna (e.g. cultural/medicinal
value, visual landscape)
o skills training to undertake environmental mitigation
measures
o potable water supply
o conserving hunted wildlife or fish stocks
44
o

issues of sustainable income generation and
employment (including significance of gender
Conflicts of interest between current and future users of those
resources affected by the project (e.g. developed land, potable
water supply, waste absorbing capacities of water-bodies,
skilled labour, credit availability, extension services,
recreational areas)
Sarana Mitigasi
In order to protect the environment from the adverse effects of agricultural
programmes and projects there are a number of mitigation and
management options that can be implemented. Some key options are
given below. These may be undertaken individually or combined into an
action plan. To achieve the best results, mitigation options should be
determined through the close participation of those for whom the project is
intended and those likely to be adversely affected.
Sarana untuk melindungi Lingkungan yang Sensitif
Wilderness Areas (termasuk hutan)
 Alternative project siting (or routing of access roads if
applicable)
 Include wilderness area features in project design (e.g. fish
ladders, wildlife passages or crossings)
 Establish buffer zones around wilderness or forest areas
 Rehabilitate or create ecosystems to offset wilderness or forest
conversion or add to existing stock
 Strengthen wilderness and forest area management
institutions, both governmental and non-governmental, with
staff, equipment, training, and support of enforcement activities
 Establish
environmental
and
conservation
education
programmes at local schools
Wetlands = rawa-rawa
 Selection of alternative sites to avoid wetland
 Design features to prevent disturbance of the flow patterns and
hydrologic regimes critical to conservation of the wetland (e.g.
flow regulating works, road crossings on trestles or pilings,
rather than on embankments)
 Enhancement and/or protection of other wetland in substandard
conditions to offset losses at project site
 Artificial construction of wetland to replace areas lost (e.g.
where experience has shown that the wetland type in question
can, in fact be constructed)
 Strengthen institutions to manage and protect wetland
 Include NGOs in the institutional arrangements for wetland
conservation
 Promote development of national wetland incentives and
management strategies
45


Require wetland concerns to be considered in national and
local planning and law and incorporated into decision-making
processes
Environmental education programmes to disseminate
knowledge on the importance of wetland
Sarana-sarana untuk Penyiapan Lahan
 Memilih lokasi yang tidak membahayakan lingkungan
 Adopsi alternative sarana pembukaan lahan
 retain certain vegetation such as tree stumps and shrubs to
help preserve soil structure and prevent soil erosion
 leave residual vegetation to be returned to the soil for
nutrient/organik matter value
 market removed products to offset clearing costs
 identify low lying areas that could best be used for pond
aquaculture
 require a clearing method/cover crop/cropping plan before
clearing approved
 plant the cleared area immediately following clearance with an
appropriate vegetation cover
 consider mitigation measures for road construction associated
with agricultural projects
 soil suitability assessments should state what land clearing
methods are assumed
 declare surrounding forests as wildlife preserves or forest
reserves
 Where land management systems are shown to be in transition
by a socio-economic analysis, monitoring and evaluation should
be built into agricultural activities to mitigate future impacts that
may affect the population or resource base
 Sustain the capability of the land under a given land use to
return to its initial productivity
 Identifikasi dan mendukung kesejahteraan dan identitas budaya
masyarakat local yang terpengaruh.
 Menyediakan sarana penyuluhan yang memadai.
Sarana / Tindakan untuk Operasi Pertanian
Mitigasi dampak pengelolaan lahan
 Biological conservation techniques (both on-farm and off-farm
options)
 Water conservation techniques (both on-farm and off-farm
options)
 Soil conservation measures (eg terracing, bunding, contour
ploughing)
 Judicious use and efficient application of agro-chemicals
Sarana Kelembagaan
 Kebijakan sektoral yang mendukung pelestarian lingkungan
 Fiscal and economic policies that support settled agricultural
development (e.g. subsidies)
46




Land tenure modifications in support of permanent agriculture
Environmentally responsive land use planning - with legal basis
and resources for enforcement
Buffer zones between forest and agriculture
Incorporation of 'planning gains' into land allocation and
'change of landuse' to encourage
Isu-isu Peternakan
A senior UN official and co-author of a UN report detailing this
problem, Henning Steinfeld, said "Livestock are one of the most significant
contributors to today's most serious environmental problems". Livestock
production occupies 70% of all land used for agriculture, or 30% of the
land surface of the planet. It is one of the largest sources of greenhouse
gases, responsible for 18% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions as
measured in CO2 equivalents. By comparison, all transportation emits
13.5% of the CO2. It produces 65% of human-related nitrous oxide (which
has 296 times the global warming potential of CO2,) and 37% of all humaninduced methane (which is 23 times as warming as CO2. It also generates
64% of the ammonia, which contributes to acid rain and acidification of
ecosystems. Livestock expansion is cited as a key factor driving
deforestation, in the Amazon basin 70% of previously forested area is now
occupied by pastures and the remainder used for feedcrops. Through
deforestation and land degradation, livestock is also driving reductions in
biodiversity.
Transformasi, Konversi dan Degradasi Lahan
Land transformation, the use of land to yield goods and services, is
the most substantial way humans alter the Earth's ecosystems, and is
considered the driving force in the loss of biodiversity. Estimates of the
amount of land transformed by humans vary from 39–50%. Land
degradation, the long-term decline in ecosystem function and productivity,
is estimated to be occurring on 24% of land worldwide, with cropland
overrepresented. The UN-FAO report cites land management as the
driving factor behind degradation and reports that 1.5 billion people rely
upon the degrading land. Degradation can be deforestation, desertification,
soil erosion, mineral depletion, or chemical degradation (acidification and
salinization).
The Land Transformation Model (LTM) contains three general categories
of Driving Variables: Management Authority, Socioeconomics and
Environmental. Management Authority includes the institutional components
and policies of land use. Land ownership is an important component in this
module of the model since state and federally-owned lands (e.g., state and
federal forests, parks and preserves) need to be excluded from development.
Socioeconomic driving variables include population change, economics of land
ownership, transportation, agricultural economics and locations of employment.
Environmental driving variables of land transformation are: (1) abiotic, such as
the distribution of soil types and elevation; and, (2) biotic, such as the locations
47
of endangered and threatened species, or the attractiveness of certain types of
vegetation patterns in the landscape for development. Driving variables may
contain intercorrelated subcomponents; hence the model can be hierarchical.
For example, the farming socioeconomic system in the Saginaw Bay Watershed
application of the pilot model is composed of farm-size dependent economics,
farmer demographics and environmental influences on farm productivity.
Land Transformation is characterized by change in land use and land cover.
Land use describes the anthropogenic uses of land as its affects ecological
processes and land value (Veldkamp and Fresco 1996). Land uses that we
consider at the most general level are: urban, agriculture/pasture, forest,
wetlands, open water, barren and non-forested vegetation. Land cover
characterizes the plant cover of associated land use and is thus not mutually
exclusive of land use. Land cover types that are considered include: types of
agriculture (row crops versus non-row crops), deciduous and coniferous forests,
and non-forested vegetation.
Within each land use, we consider Intensity Of Use such as land management
practices, resource use and human activities. Intensity of use can be measured as
chemical inputs to the land to increase its productivity (e.g., herbicides),
chemical inputs as it results from human activities (e.g., salting of roads), and
natural resource use (e.g, subsurface water for irrigation, per unit area energy
consumption and forest harvesting). Socioeconomics, policy and environmental
factors will also drive the intensity of use as well.
Changes in land use and cover, and intensity of use, alter Processes (e.g.,
hydrogeologic and geochemical) and Distributions of plants and animals in
ecosystems. Processes that we are interested in characterizing include
groundwater and surface water flows, chemical and sediment transport across
land and through rivers and streams, geochemical interactions and fluxes such as
nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus). Land use and land cover will affect the
types and numbers of animals inhabiting areas.
Assessment endpoints are indicators of ecological integrity and economic
sustainability. These assessment endpoints are used to quantify the nature of
changes in landscapes. It is important that assessment endpoints be: 1) relatively
easy to quantify, 2) unambiguous, 3) correlated with changes to land use; and, 4)
reflect qualitative aspects of landscapes. These assessment endpoints provide
input to the decision making process by watershed stakeholders.
48
Model transformasi lahan dan dampaknya (Sumber:
http://www.ncgia.ucsb.edu/conf/landuse97/papers/pijanowski_bryan/pape
r.html ..... diunduh 28/6/2011)
Konversi Lahan
Proses alih fungsi lahan secara langsung dan tidak langsung
ditentukan oleh dua faktor, yaitu: (i) sistem kelembagaan yang
dikembangkan oleh masyarakat dan pemerintah, dan (ii) sistem nonkelembagaan yang berkembang secara alamiah dalam masyarakat.
Sistem kelembagaan yang dikembangkan oleh masyarakat dan
pemerintah antara lain direpresentasikan dalam bentuk terbitnya beberapa
peraturan mengenai konversi lahan.
Secara ekonomi alih fungsi lahan yang dilakukan petani baik
melalui transaksi penjualan ke pihak lain ataupun mengganti pada usaha
non padi merupakan keputusan yang rasional. Sebab dengan keputusan
tersebut petani berekspektasi pendapatan totalnya, baik dalam jangka
pendek maupun dalam jangka panjang akan meningkat. Penelitian yang
dilakukan oleh beberapa peneliti, menunjukkan bahwa penggunaan lahan
sawah untuk penanaman padi sangat inferior dibanding penggunaan untuk
turisme, perumahan dan industri. Penelitian Syafa’at et al. (2001) pada
sentra produksi padi utama di Jawa dan Luar Jawa, menunjukkan bahwa
selain faktor teknis dan kelembagaan, faktor ekonomi yang menetukan alih
fungsi lahan sawah ke pertanian dan non pertanian adalah : (1) nilai
kompetitif padi terhadap komoditas lain menurun; (2) respon petani
terhadap dinamika pasar, lingkungan, dan daya saing usahatani
meningkat.
Dampak konversi lahan sawah dapat dipandang dari dua sisi.
Pertama, dari fungsinya, lahan sawah diperuntukan untuk memproduksi
49
padi. Dengan demikian adanya konversi lahan sawah ke fungsi lain akan
menurunkan produksi padi nasional. Ke dua, dari bentuknya perubahan
lahan sawah ke pemukiman, perkantoran, prasarana jalan dan lainnya
berimplikasi besarnya kerugian akibat sudah diinvestasikannya dana untuk
mencetak sawah, membangun waduk dan sistem irigasi.
Volume produksi yang hilang akibat konversi lahan sawah
ditentukan oleh: pola tanam yang diterapkan di lahan sawah yang belum
dikonversi; produktivitas usahatani dari masing-masing komoditi dari pola
tanam yang diterapkan; dan luas lahan sawah yang terkonversi. Irawan
dan Friyatno (2002), memformulasikan rumus dasar kehilangan produksi
akibat konversi pada tahun t di wilayah tertentu sebagai berikut:
Qti = Lti · Iti · Yti
dimana:
Qti = produksi padi pada tahun t di wilayah i
Lti = luas baku sawah pada tahun t di wilayah i
Iti = intensitas panen padi per tahun pada tahun t di wilayah i
Yti = Produktivitas padi per musim per hektar pada tahun t di
wilayah I
Persamaan di atas akan lebih kompleks namun lebih akurat
dilakukan per musim tanam padi. Perhitungan berdasarkan musim tanam
akan menghasilkan perkiraan yang lebih akurat, dengan formulasi sebagai
berikut:
dimana: Ltim = luas baku sawah pada tahun t di wilayah i yang ditanami
padi pada musim tanam m
Ytim = produksi padi pada tahun t di wilayah i pada musim tanam m
m = musim tanam padi, dimana m =1 adalah MH-I, m = 2 adalah MH-II,
dan m =3 adalah MK.
Dengan menggunakan persamaan di atas ini dapat dihitung berapa
ton produksi padi potensial yang hilang akibat adanya konversi lahan
sawah. Sumaryanto, Hermanto, dan Pasandaran (1996) memperkirakan
rata-rata produksi padi yang hilang akibat konversi lahan sawah di Jawa
tak kurang dari 8,2 ton/Ha/tahun. Penelitian terbaru Pusat Penelitian dan
Pengembangan Sosial Ekonomi Pertanian Bogor yang dilaporkan Irawan
dan Friyatno (2002), dampak konversi lahan sawah terhadap produksi
padi di Jawa selama 18 tahun (1981-1999) diperkirakan secara akumulasi
mencapai 50,9 juta ton atau sekitar 2,82 juta ton per tahun. Kehilangan
tersebut tidak mampu ditutup oleh pencetakan lahan sawah yang
dilakukan di luar Jawa. Karena menurut Irawan dan Friyatno (2002),
kehilangan produksi padi dari areal lahan sawah di Jawa tersebut setara
dengan 1,7 juta ton beras per tahun yang jumlahnya sebanding dengan
50
impor beras Indonesia pada periode 1984 – 1997 yang berkisar antara 1,5
– 2,5 juta ton beras per tahun. Ketidakmampuan sawah baru
menggantikan sawah yang terkonversi di Jawa disebabkan rata-rata
sawah di Jawa tingkat produktivitasnya lebih tinggi dibandingkan
produktivitas lahan sawah di Luar Jawa, apalagi sawah-sawah yang baru
dicetak. Namun demikian jika tidak ada upaya pencetakan lahan sawah di
Luar Jawa tentunya impor yang dibutuhkan akan lebih besar lagi. Di
samping itu hendaknya perbaikan teknologi budidaya padi lahan sawah
dan lahan kering serta upaya-upaya penyuluhan yang akhir-akhir ini
menurun, sebaiknya ditingkatkan lagi secara terus menerus. Di sisi
permintaan, upaya diversifikasi pangan pokok dengan bahan local yang
masih tersendat perlu diupayakan terus.
Menurut Nasoetion dan Winoto (1996), alih fungsi lahan sawah ke
non pertanian merupakan suatu proses yang mahal. Biaya investasi untuk
pencetakan dan pengembangan sistem pertanian sawah sangat besar,
baik kaitannya dengan pembangunan waduk, sistem irigasi, maupun
pemantapan ekosistem sawah yang umumnya butuh waktu lebih dari 10
tahun. Sumaryanto, Hermanto, dan Pasandaran, (1996) memperkirakan
investasi membangun lahan sawah irigasi membutuhkan biaya sekitar Rp
4,9 juta/ha pada tahun 1989. Menurut Departemen Pekerjaan Umum,
pada tahun 1996, untuk membangun lahan sawah beririgasi teknis
dibutuhkan biaya mencapai Rp 9 juta/ha. Dengan menggunakan perkiraan
tersebut pada nilai kini maka kerugian akibat investasi lahan sawah yang
hilang disebabkan adanya konversi lahan sawah cukup besar.
Dampak social-ekonomi lain dari alih fungsi lahan pertanian
adalah: kesempatan kerja pertanian menurun sejalan dengan menurunnya
lahan pertanian yang tersedia, kesempatan kerja yang terkait secara
langsung maupun tidak langsung dengan kegiatan produksi padi, dan
degradasi lingkungan.
Degradasi lahan
Sebagian lahan pertanian telah mengalami kerusakan, baik oleh
proses alam maupun aktivitas manusia dalam budidaya pertanian.
Kerusakan yang sangat hebat pada lahan terutama disebabkan oleh
manusia. Kebutuhan manusia terhadap sumber daya yang ada pada lahan
seperti hasil-hasil pertanian dan peternakan yang semakin meningkat
memungkinkan eksploitasi terhadap lahan dilakukan secara besar –
besaran. Degradasi lahan berarti hilangnya fungsi lahan atau berubahnya
kualitas dan manfaat dari suatu lahan. Jadi, kerusakan lahan tidak hanya
menyangkut kerusakan pada tanah, tetapi juga sumber daya berupa
organisme yang ada di atas tanah. Gaya-gaya eksogen yang bersifat
mengikis muka bumi digolongkan sebagai tenaga eksogen degradasi.
Tenaga eksogen degradasi ini dapat dibedakan menjadi 3 jenis, yaitu
pelapukan, gerakan massa dan erosi. Ketiganya sangat berpengaruh
terhadap degradasi lahan.
Dampak yang dapat ditimbulkan akibat degradasi lahan sebagai
berikut:
a) Terjadi perubahan kondisi iklim. Tumbuhan berfungsi
meningkatkan penguapan melalui dedaunan (transpirasi) dan
menyerap panas. Jika tumbuhan banyak ditebang, suhu udara
meningkat dan penguapan berkurang
51
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
Spesies tertentu dalam ekosistem hutan dapat hilang atau
punah karena hutan sebagai habitatnya mengalami
kerusakan. Sebagian hewan terpaksa masuk ke pemukiman
penduduk, merusak kebun atau mengganggu aktivitas
manusia.
Hilangnya berbagai jenis spesies makhluk hidup karena
rusaknya lahan menimbulkan kerugian yang tak ternilai
harganya.
Banjir dan kekeringan semakin sering terjadi karena
berkurangnya infiltrasi dan meningkatkan limpasan permukaan
Berkembangnya masalah kemiskinan di kalangan petani
karena produktivitas lahannya terus menurun
Terbukanya lahan kerana kerusakan hutan memungkinkan
terjadinya erosi yang sangat intensif pada lahan sehingga
tanah menjadi tidak subur
Nilai estetika (keindahan) dari keanekaragaman tumbuhan dan
hewan yang hidup di suatu lahan menjadi hilang
Hasil – hasil hutan yang secara ekonomi dapat memberikan
keuntungan seperti kayu, buah – buahan dan tanaman obat
menjadi hilang
Tanah menjadi tandus dan tidak dapat ditanami lagi
Erosi yang terjadi pada lahan kritis dapat menimbulkan tanah
longsor
Untuk mencegah degradasi lahan, diperlukan upaya yang
dilakukan agar keberadaan lahan dapat terus dimanfaatkan dengan
memperhatikan kelestarian lingkungan. Upaya – upaya yang dilakukan
adalah:
1. Lahan – lahan yang tdiak cocok untuk pertanian sebaiknya
dijadikan sebagai hutan, seperti lereng gunung yang curam
atau daerah tanah berkapur yang mudah longsor
2. Lahan – lahan kering tadah hujan sebaiknya dibuat teras agar
dapat mengurangi aliran permukaan (runoff)
3. Daerah yang memiliki curah hujan tinggi seperti Jawa Barat,
lahan yang miring tidak hanya dibuat sangkedan, saluran
pelepas air perlu dibuat memanjang lereng. Terjunan air perlu
diperkuat bambu, batu dan rumput yang akarnya kuat
4. Hindari penyiangan yang bersih di antara tanaman pepohonan.
Jika tidak ada pupuk hijau penutup tanah, dapat pula dengan
rumput yang tidak berbahaya bagi tanaman pokok. Keberadaan
tanaman penutup tanah juga meminimumkan erosi tanah
5. Melakukan reboisasi terhadap lahan yang sudah kritis
6. Tidak membakar lahan pertanian dan hutan pada musim
kemarau. Selain dapat menyebabkan degradasi lahan, asap
dari kebakaran tersebut juga menimbulkan polusi udara.
Eutrofikasi
Eutrophikasi, kelebihan hara dalam ekosistem akuatik
mengakibatkan blooming algae dan anoxia, mengakibatkan kematian ikan
52
, kehilangan biodiversity, dan mengakibatkan kualitas air tidak cocok untuk
air minum dan untuk penggunaan industry lainnya. Penggunaan pupuk
dan rabuk yang berlebihan dapat mengakibatkan pencucian dan runoff N
dan P dari lahan pertanian. Unsur hara ini merupakan penyebab
eutrofikasi pada ekosistem akuatik.
Eutrofikasi adalah pencemaran air yang disebabkan oleh
munculnya nutrient yang berlebihan ke dalam ekosistem air. Eutrofikasi
merupakan problem lingkungan hidup yang diakibatkan oleh limbah fosfat
(PO3-), khususnya dalam ekosistem air tawar. Air dikatakan eutrofik jika
konsentrasi total phosphorus (TP) dalam air berada dalam rentang 35-100
µg/L. Eutrofikasi merupakan proses alamiah di mana danau mengalami
penuaan secara bertahap dan menjadi lebih produktif bagi tumbuhnya
biomassa. Diperlukan proses ribuan tahun untuk sampai pada kondisi
eutrofik. Proses alamiah ini, oleh manusia dengan segala aktivitas
modernnya, secara tidak disadari dipercepat menjadi dalam hitungan
beberapa dekade atau bahkan beberapa tahun saja.
Eutrofikasi mempunyai dampak yang buruk bagi ekosistem air,
diantaranya:
 Anoxia (tidak tersedianya oksigen) yang dapat membunuh ikan
dan invertrebata lain yang juga dapat memicu terlepasnya gasgas berbahaya yang tidak diinginkan
 Algal blooms dan tidak terkontrolnya pertumbuhan dari
tumbuhan akutik yang lain
 Produksi substansi beracun oleh beberapa spesies blue-green
algae
 Konsentrasi tinggi bahan-bahan organik yang jika dicegah
dengan menggunakan klorin akan dapat menyebabkan
terciptanya bahan-bahan karsinogen yang dapat menyebabkan
kanker
 Pengurangan nilai keindahan dari danau atau waduk karena
berkurangnya kejernihan air
 Terbatasnya akses untuk memancing dan aktivitas rekreasi
disebabkan terakumulasinya tumbuhan air di danau atau
waduk
 Berkurangnya jumlah spesies dan keanekaragaman tumbuhan
dan hewan (biodiversity)
 Berubahnya komposisi dari banyaknya spesies ikan yang ada
menjadi sedikit spesies ikan (dalam hubungannnya dengan
ekonomi dan kandungan protein)
 Deplesi oksigen larut dalam air (DO) terutama di lapisan yang
lebih dalam dari danau atau waduk
 Berkurangnya hasil perikanan dikarenakan deplesi oksigen
(DO) yang signifikan di badan air.
Pestisida
Penggunaan pestisida tingkat dunia meningkat sejak 1950 hingga
2.5 juta ton setahun, namunkehilangan tanaman akibat gangguan hamapenyakit relative masih tetap saja. The World Health Organization
53
estimated in 1992 that 3 million pesticide poisonings occur annually,
causing 220,000 deaths. Pesticides select for pesticide resistance in the
pest population, leading to a condition termed the 'pesticide treadmill' in
which pest resistance warrants the development of a new pesticide.
An alternative argument is that the way to 'save the environment'
and prevent famine is by using pesticides and intensive high yield farming,
a view exemplified by a quote heading the Center for Global Food Issues
website: 'Growing more per acre leaves more land for nature'. However,
critics argue that a trade-off between the environment and a need for food
is not inevitable, and that pesticides simply replace good agronomic
practices such as crop rotation.
Perubahan Iklim
Perubahan iklim berpotensi mempengaruhi kinerja pertanian
melalui perubahan temperature, curah hujan ( waktu dan jumlah hujan),
CO2, radiasi matahari dan interaksinya.
Agriculture can both mitigate or worsen global warming. Some of the
increase in CO2 in the atmosphere comes from the decomposition of
organik matter in the soil, and much of the methane emitted into the
atmosphere is caused by the decomposition of organik matter in wet soils
such as rice paddies. Further, wet or anaerobic soils also lose nitrogen
through denitrification, releasing the greenhouse gases nitric oxide and
nitrous oxide. Changes in management can reduce the release of these
greenhouse gases, and soil can further be used to sequester some of the CO2
in the atmosphere.
Dalam jangka panjang, perubahan iklim dapat mempengaruhi
pertanian dalam beberapa cara :
 Produktivitas, ditinjau dari kuantitas dan kualitas tanaman
 Praktek budidaya pertanian, melalui perubahan penggunaan air
(irigasi) dan input pertanian seperti herbicida, insecticides dan
pupuk
 Pengaruh Lingkungan, terutama dalam hubungannya dengan
frekuensi dan intensitas drainage tanah (yang dpaat
menyebabkan pencucian nitrogen), erosi tanah, reduksi
keaneka-ragaman tanaman
 Ruang pedesaan, melalui konversi lahan budidaya, spekulasi
lahan, renunsiasi lahan, dan kenyamanan hydraulik.
 Adaptasi, organism dapat lebih atau kurang kompetitif, seperti
halnya manusia dapat mengembangkan urgensi untuk menjadi
organism yang lebih kompetitif, misalnya varietas padi yang
tahan genangan atau tahan garam.
Pengaruh Temperatur terhadap Periode Pertumbuhan
Durasi siklus pertumbuhan tanaman sangat penting, terutama
berkaitan dengan temperatur.
Peningkatan temperature akan
mempercepat perkembangan organisme. Dalam hal tanaman musiman,
durasi antara tebar benih dan panen akan diperpendek (misalnya, durasi
untuk panen jagung dapat diperpendek antara satu dan empat minggu).
54
Pemendekan siklus hidup tanaman seperti itu dapat berdampak buruk
terhadap produktivitasnya, karena senescence akan terjadi lebih cepat.
Pengaruh Peningkatan konsentrasi CO2 terhadap tanaman
CO2 sangat esensial bagi pertumbuhan tanaman. Peningkatan
konsentrasi CO2 di atmosfer dapat berdampak positif dan negative.
Peningkatan CO2 diharapkan berdampak positif secara fisiologis melalui
peningkatan laju fotosintesis. Pada saat ini, jumlah CO2 di atmosfer
sebesar 380 ppm, sedangkan jumlah oksigen 210,000 ppm. Hal ini berarti
bahwa tanaman dapat mengalami kekurangan CO2, karena ensim yang
mengikat CO2, (yaitu rubisco) juga mengikat oksigen dalam proses
fotorespirasi. Dampak peningkatan konsentrasi CO2 akan lebih besar
pada tanaman tipe C3 (seperti gandum) dibandingkan dengan tanaman
tipe C4 (seperti jagung), karena tanaman C3 lebih peka terhadap
kekurangan CO2. Hasil-hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa peningkatan
CO2 mengakibatkan lebih sedikit stomata yang berkembang pada
tanaman yang selanjutnya mengakibatkan reduksi kebutuhan air. Pada
kondisi optimum suhu dan kelembaban udara, hasil tanaman meningkat
mencapai 36%, kalau konsentrasi CO2 udara meningkat dua-kali.
Further, few studies have looked at the impact of elevated carbon dioxide
concentrations on whole farming systems. Most models study the
relationship between CO2 and productivity in isolation from other factors
associated with climate change, such as an increased frequency of extreme
weather events, seasonal shifts, and so on.
Fungsi Ekosistem dan Jasa-jasanya
Sistem ekologi atau ecosystem merupakan daerah alamiah yang
melingkupi organism hidup dan benda mati yang berinteraksi
menghasilkan pertukaran material di antara organism hidup dan benda
mati. Sebagaimana system lainnya, ekosistem ini juga merupakan
kombinasi dari bagian-bagian yang saling berinteraksi dan berinterelasi
membentuk satu kesatuan utuh.
Economic theory identifies four kinds of capital: human, financial,
manufactured and natural. Developed economies have focused primarily on
using the first three (which were considered limiting factors to development)
to transform natural capital (which was considered ‘free’ and abundant) into
consumer products and services. Ecosystem services are the equivalent of
‘natural capital’. The concept of ecosystem services refers to the set of
ecosystem functions that are useful to humans. It encompasses the delivery,
provision, production, protection or maintenance of a set of goods and
services that people perceive to be important. These services impart to
society a variety of benefits, many of which are critical to the survival of the
society. The list of services is long, and includes benefits such as the
purification of our water by forest ecosystems, control of flooding by
wetland ecosystems, crop pollination, and aesthetic and cultural benefits.
Jasa-jasa ekosistem dapat didefinisikan berdasarkan pada sekala
dan perspektifnya. Klasifikasi fungsi ekosistem dan deskripsi jasa-jasa
55
yang dihasilkan oleh fungsi-fungsi ekosistem tersebut dipublikasikan oleh
De Groot, et al. (2002).
Tabel 1. Klasifikasi Fungsi Ekosistem
Fungsi Ekosistem
Deskripsi
1. Fungsi Regulasi
This group of functions relates to the capacity of natural and
semi-natural ecosystems to regulate essential ecological
processes and life support systems through bio-geochemical
cycles and other biospheric processes. In addition to
maintaining ecosystem (and biosphere) health, these
regulation functions provide many services that have direct
and indirect benefits to humans (such as clean air, water and
soil, and biological control services). Natural ecosystems play
an essential role in the regulation and maintenance of
ecological processes and life support systems on earth.
Natural ecosystems provide refuge and reproduction habitat to
wild plants and animals and thereby contribute to the (in situ)
conservation of biological and genetic diversity and
evolutionary processes.
2. Fungsi Habitat
3.
Fungsi
Produksi
4. Fungsi Informasi
Photosynthesis and nutrient uptake by autotrophs converts
energy, carbon dioxide, water and nutrients into a wide variety
of carbohydrate structures which are then used by secondary
producers to create an even larger variety of living biomass.
This broad diversity in carbohydrate structures provides many
ecosystem goods for human consumption, ranging from food
and raw materials to energy resources and genetic material.
Because most of human evolution took place within the
context of undomesticated habitat, natural ecosystems provide
an essential ‘reference function’ and contribute to the
maintenance of human health by providing opportunities for
reflection, spiritual enrichment, cognitive development,
recreation and aesthetic experience.
56
Ekonomi Jasa-jasa Agroekosistem
Nilai-nilai Agroekosistem dalam memproduksi pangan, energy
dan jasa-jasa ekosistemnya
Ekosistem pertanian menghasilkan bahan pangan, bahan serat
dan jasa-jasa ekosistem non-pasar (ES). Pertanian juga melibatkan biaya
eksternal negative yang sangat tinggi yang berhubungan dengan,
misalnya penggunaan bahan bakar fosil. Kita mengestimasi, dengan
menggunakan metode pemantauan ekologis lapangan dan valuasi
ekonomi metode “value-transfer”, nilai-nilai ES pasar dan non-pasar dari
Kombinasi Bahan-Pangan dan Energy (CFE) agro-ecosystem yang secara
simultan menghasilkan bahan pangan, pakan, dan bioenergi.
Such novel CFE agro-ecosystems can provide a significantly increased net
crop, energy, and nonmarketed ES compared with conventional agriculture,
and require markedly less fossil-based inputs. Extrapolated to the regional
scale, the value of nonmarket ES from the CFE system exceeds current farm
subsidy payments. Such integrated food and bioenergy systems can thus
provide environmental value for money for farming and nonfarming
communities.
Jasa-jasa ekosistem , Ecosystem services (ES), merupakan
manfaat bagi manusia yang dihasilkan oleh proses-proses ekologis dan
fungsi ekosistem. Dengan mengenali nilai-nilai ES, kita akan paham
bahwa kesejahteraan ekologis kita yang bersifat non-pasar mendukung
kesejahteraan ekonomis kita yang bersifat pasar. ES dari pertanian
biasanya mempunyai nilai relative rendah dibandingkan dnegan jasa-jasa
ekosistem lainnya, mungkin karena kurangnya data pendukung. Akan
tetapi, masih diperlukan estimasi yang lebih akurat untuk ES dari
pertanian, karena agro-ecosystems meliputi sekitar 28% - 37% dari luas
muka bumi, dengan perbandingan sekitar 70 : 30 antara pastures dan
tanaman pertanian.
Although agricultural ecosystems may have low ES values per unit area when
compared with other ecosystems, such as estuaries and wetlands, they offer
the best chance of increasing global ES via definition of appropriate goals for
agriculture and the use of landmanagement regimes that favor the ES
provision. Agriculture can be considered the largest ecological experiment on
Earth, with a large potential to damage global ES but also to promote them
via ecologically informed approaches to the design of agro-ecosystems that
value both marketed and nonmarketed ES. It is difficult to see how global
ES can increase without significant improvements in ES from farming, given
the proportion of the Earth’s land devoted to agriculture and because its ES
provision has been driven to a low level that improvements can readily be
achieved.
57
Pendekatan dan Metode untuk Valuasi Ekonomi
Pendekatan
Valuasi
Sisi Biaya
Metode
Valuasi
Biaya
Penggantian
Biaya
Pemulihan
Boaya
Relokasi
Pembayaran
pemerintah
Metodemetode sisi
permintaan
yang
mencerminkan
preferensi
Metode
Biaya
Perjalanan =
Travel cost
method
(TCM)
Metode harga
hedonik =
Hedonic
Price
Method
(HPM)
Averting
Behavior
(AB)
Demand-side
Contingent
Valuation
(CVM)
Stated
Preference
Methods
Conjoint
Analysis
Choice
Experiments
Contingent
Ranking
Contingent
Rating
Deskripsi
Biaya-biaya untuk menggantikan asset-aset
lingkungan, barang dan jasa lingkungan (misalnya
pengganti kesuburan tanah akibat kontaminasi tanah)
Costs of restoring environmental assets and related
goods and services (e.g. restore soil fertility through
soil decontamination)
Costs of relocating environmental assets and related
goods and services (e.g. moving existing habitats to
alternative sites)
Government payments for the provision of
environmental goods and services (e.g. agrienvironmental measures)
Estimasi permintaan lokasi / obyek wisata dengan
menggunakan biaya perjalanan sebagai proksi harga
individual untuk mengujungi obyek wisata
Estimates the implicit price for environmental
attributes through the individuals choices for market
goods which incorporate such attributes (e.g. estimate
implicit price for air quality in
the price of a house)
Estimates the monetary value for an environmental
good or service observing the costs individuals incur
to avoid its loss (e.g. buying water filters to assure
safe drinking water)
Pasar hipotetik dibangun untuk memungkinkan
individu-individu menyatakan kesediaannya-untuk
membayar (willingness to pay) atas perubahan
kuantitas dan kualitas barang dan jasa lingkungan
Pasar hipotetik dibangun untuk memungkinkan
individu-individu menyatakan preferensinya atas
atribut-atribut yang melekat pada barang dan jasa
yang disajikan kepadanya
Pasar hipotetik dibangun untuk memungkinkan
individu-individu memilih pilihan yang paling
disukainya dari sekumpulan banyak pilihan, yang
didefinisikan sebagai seperangkat atribut yang diberi
harga.
Pasar hipotetik dibangun untuk memungkinkan
individu-individu meranking pilihan-pilihan dari
sekumpulan banyak alternative, yang didefinisikan
sebagai seperangkat atribut yang diberi harga
Pasar hipotetik dibangun untuk memungkinkan
individu-individu menilai pilihan-pilihan alternative
dengan menggunakan sekala “rating”; alternativealternatif didefinisikan sebagai seperangkat atribut
yang diberi harga.
58
Materi Tata-kelola
Manfaat bagi manusia yang berasal dari sumberdaya, produk dan
proses yang disediakan oleh ekosistem alamiah, lazim disebut dengan
jasa-jasa ekosistem. Jasa-jasa ini meliputi:
1. provisioning services (bahan pangan; air; bahan farmasi, bahan
biokimia, dan produk industry; energi; sumberdaya genetik),
2. regulating services (carbon sequestration dan regulasi iklim;
dekomposisi limbah dan detoksifikasi; purifikasi air dan udara;
pollination tanaman; control hama dan penyakit; mitigasi banjir dan
kekeringan),
3. supporting services (genesis tanah; daur ulang hara; penyebaran
biji; produksi primer),
4. generation and maintenance of biodiversity, dan
5. cultural services (Inspirasi budaya, intellektual dan spiritual,
pengalaman rekreasional, temuan-temuan ilmiah).
The amount of these services depends on natural evolution of
ecosystems and development of human society. Unprecedented progress
in science and technologies has augmented enormously human capability
to benefit from diverse services of nature. At the same time, growing
demand for natural resources and increased pressure on environment
have been associated with immense degradation of ecosystems (overuse,
pollution, destruction, reengineering) and reduction of related services
(MEA). That leads to increased individuals and public concerns about the
state of environment and enhanced actions for environmental
conservation. What is more, traditional goals of socio-economic
development have been expended incorporating environmental
sustainability as an essential part.
59
Mekanisme Tata-kelola untuk jasa-jasa ekosistem
Governing mechanisms for ecosystem services
Sumber: http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/15492/1/MPRA_paper_15492.pdf
..... diunduh 26/6/2011)
Achieving sustainable development and assuring effective supply
of ecosystem services require appropriate behavior of individuals and
coordinated actions at local, regional, national, transnational and global
levels. According to (awareness, symmetry, strength, harmonization costs
of) interests of agents associated with ecosystem services (consumers,
contributors, transmitters, interest groups) there are different needs for
governing of actions. Various governance needs for effective supply of
agro-ecosystem services are presented in the following .
60
Governance needs for effective supply of agro-ecosystem services (Sumber:
http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/15492/1/MPRA_paper_15492.pdf .....
diunduh 26/6/2011)
Individu-individu dapat mengurus relasi-relasinya dengan free
market (mengadopsi pergerakan harga pasar), contracting (negosiasi
“private order”), coalition (keputusan kolektif, koperasi), di dalam internal
organization (“hand of manager”); dengan model organisasi public atau
hybrid. “Rational” agents tend to select or design the most effective form
for governing of their relations maximizing benefits and minimizing costs of
transactions (Williamson). In some cases, choice of governance is
imposed by dominating institutional environment. For instance, market and
private mode could be illegitimate for certain natural resources (e.g.
managing national parks and reserves). Mode of governance also
depends on personal characteristics of agents – individuals preferences,
ideology, ethical and religious believes, bounded rationality, training,
managerial skills, risk aversion, trust, tendency for opportunism. For
example, there are increasing number of voluntary and cooperative
initiatives of producers and consumers (“codes of eco-behavior”,
“sustainability movements”, “green alliances”) being an important part of
eco-governance.
Pilihan Model Pengaturan = Choice of governing mode
Dalam kasus-kasus tertentu, hanya ada satu bentuk yang praktis
untuk mengelola aktivitas jasa ekosistem. Pada umumnya, ada banyak
ragam model-model alternative untuk mengelola aktivitas lingkungan. For
instance, supply of environmental conservation service could be governed
as: voluntary activity of farmer; though private contracts of farmer with
interested (affected) agents; though interlinked contract between farmer
and supplier (processor); though cooperation (collective action) with other
61
farmers and stakeholders; though (free)market or assisted by third-party
(certifying, controlling agent) trade with special (eco, protected origin, fairtrade) products; though public contract specifying farmer’s obligations and
compensation; though public order (regulation, taxation, quota); within
hierarchical public agency or hybrid form.
Individual governing forms have distinct advantages and
disadvantages to protect rights, and coordinate and stimulate socially
desirable activities. Free market has big coordination and incentive
features (“invisible hand of market”, “power of competition”), and provides
“unlimited” opportunities to benefit from specialization and exchange.
However, market governance could be associated with high uncertainty,
risk, and costs due to lack of information, price instability, great possibility
for facing opportunism, “missing market” situation. Special contract form
permits better coordination, intensification, and safeguard transactions.
However, it may require large costs for specifying provisions, adjustments
with changes in conditions, enforcement and disputing of negotiated terms.
Internal (ownership) organization allows greater flexibility and
control on transactions (direct coordination, adaptation, enforcement,
dispute resolution by fiat). However, extension of internal mode beyond
family and small-partnership boundaries may command significant costs
for making coalition (finding partners, design, registration, restructuring),
and current management (coordination, decision-making, control of
coalition members opportunism).
Separation of ownership from management (cooperative,
corporation) gives enormous opportunities for growth in productivity and
transacting efficiency – internal division and specialization of labor;
exploration of economies of scale/scope; introduction of innovation;
diversification; risk sharing; investing in product promotion, brand names,
relations with customers, counterparts and authorities). However, it could
be connected with huge transaction costs for decreasing information
asymmetry between management and shareholders, decision-making,
controlling opportunism, adaptation. Cooperative and non-for profit form
also suffers from low capability for internal long-term investment due to
non-for profit goals and non-tradable character of shares (“horizon
problem”).
Efficiency of governance also depends on “critical dimensions” of
transactions – factors responsible for variation of transaction costs. When
recurrence of transactions between same partners is high, then both (all)
sides are interested in sustaining and minimizing costs of relations
(avoiding opportunism, building reputation, setting up adjustment
mechanisms). Besides, costs for developing special private mode for
facilitating bilateral (multilateral) exchange could be effectively recovered
by frequent transactions.
Kalau ketidak-pastian (environmental, behavioral, institutional) di
sekeliling transaksi meningkat, maka biaya-biaya untuk mengamankan
transaksi sangat mahal – untuk mengatasi defisiensi informasi,
pengamanan risiko dll.. Sementara itu, risiko-risiko tertentu yang dapat
diminimumkan dengan model pasar tertentu (asuransi) memerlukan
bentuk-bentuk khusus - kontrak, cooperation, integration.
Transaction costs get very high when specific assets for relations
with a particular partner are to be deployed. Relation specific investments
62
are "locked" in transactions with particular buyer (seller), and cannot be
recovered through "faceless" market trade or redeployment to another
uses. Therefore, dependant investment have to be safeguarded by special
form such as long-term contract, interlinks, hostage taking, joint
investment, ownership integration. Nevertheless, when symmetrical
(capacity, site, origin, branding, time of delivery) inter-dependency of
investments or welfare of agents exist, then costs of governance are not
significant (mutual interests for cooperation).
Transaksi sangat sukar kalau kepantasan hak-hak (atas produk,
jasa-jasa, dan sumberdaya) rendah. Dalam hal ini, kemungkinan terjadinya
perubahan yang tidak diinginkan (pasar, privat) sangat besar, dan biayabiaya perlindungan (safeguard, detection of cheating, disputing) hak-hak
privat sangat besar. Agen-agen akan over-produk (negative externalities)
atau under-organize (positive externalities) kecuali jika mereka ditata dan
dikelola oleh privat yang efisien atau model hibrida (cooperation, aliansi
strategis, kontrak jangka panjang, trade secrets, public order).
Kita harus menempatkan transaksi individual dalam “pusat
analisis”, dan menilai efisiensi komparatif dari bentuk-bentuk yang
mungkin dilakukan untuk mengendalikan transaksi tersebut.
Discrete structural analysis is suggested which “align transactions
(differing in attributes) with governance structures (differing in costs and
competence) in discriminating (transaction cost economizing) way”
(Williamson). According to combination of specific characteristics of each
transaction, there will be different most effective form for governing of
ecosystem service activity.
Transactions with good appropriability, high certainty, and universal
character of investments could be effectively carried across free market
through spotlight or classical contracts. There are widespread market
modes for selling pure “ecosystem services” (eco-visits, hunting, fishing,
harvesting wild plants, animals) or “ecosystem services” interlinked with
other products and services (organik, fair-trade, special origins, on-farm
sale, self-pick, education, eco-tourism, horse-riding, eco-restaurants).
Recurrent transactions with low specificity, high uncertainty and
appropriability, could be effectively governed through special contract.
Relational contract is applied when detailed terms of transacting are not
known at outset (high uncertainty), and framework (mutual expectations)
rather than specification of obligations is practiced19. Special contract
forms is also efficient for rare transactions with low uncertainty, high
specificity and appropriability.
Here dependent investment could be successfully safeguarded
through contract provisions since it is easy to define and enforce relevant
obligations of partners in all possible contingencies (no uncertainty). For
example, eco-contracts and cooperative agreements between farmers and
interested businesses or communities are widely used including payment
for ecosystem services, and lead to production methods (enhanced
pasture management, reduce use of agrochemicals, wetland preservation)
protecting water from pollution, mitigating floods and wild fires.
63
Tabel 3. Model-model untuk mengatur transaksi jasa ekosistem
Transaksi dengan frekuensi tinggi, ketidak-pastian yang besar,
asset yang sangat spesifik, dan kesesuaian yang tinggi, harus ditata di
dalam organisasi internal. Very often effective scale of specific investment in
agro-ecosystem services exceeds borders of traditional agrarian organizations. If
specific capital (knowledge, technology, equipment, funding) cannot be effectively
organized within singe organization , then effective external form(s) is to be used –
joint ownership, interlinks, cooperative, lobbying for public intervention.
Namun demikian, biaya-biaya untuk inisiasi dan memelihara
organisasi kolektif untuk mengatasi ketergantungan-unilateral biasanya
sangat besar (banyak koalisi, beragam kepentingan anggota, opportunism
dari “free-rider” ) dan ini tidak berkelanjutan atau tidak terlibat sama sekali.
Model intervensi publik yang efektif
Analysis dan perbaikan tata-kelola publik untuk jasa-jasa agroekosistem harus melibatkan tahapan berikut:
Pertama, kita harus mengidentifikasi kecenderungan (trends),
factor-faktor dan risiko yang berhubungan dengan jasa-jasa
agroekosistem.
Modern science offers precise methods to classify diverse agroecosystem services (their spatial and temporal scales), evaluate trends
and risks in their evolution, and identify driving ecological and social
factors for their progression (MEA). What is more, it suggests effective
methods to improve farming, business and consumption practices in order
to mitigate environmental and social hazards on ecosystem services.
64
Gambar 4: Tahapan dalam perbaikan tata-kelola publik untuk
jasa-jasa agro-ecosystem
Ke dua, we have to access efficiency and potential of existing
mechanisms of governance (institutions, market, private, public) to deal
with problems and risks for sustainable flow of agro-ecosystem services. It
will be based on analysis of structure and dynamics of (individuals, groups,
public) interests in each agro-ecosystem and transaction costs for their
communication, protection and reconciliation.
Ke tiga, kita harus mengidentifikasi deficiensi (kegagalan) yang
mendominasi pasar, privat dan model-mode publik untuk menata secara
efektif perilaku agen-agen yang berhubungan dengan jasa-jasa agroecosystem (consumers, contributors, transmitters, interest groups,
authorities). Existing and emerging transacting difficulties are to be specified undefined or badly defined and enforced private rights, bounded rationality and
opportunisms of agents; low appropriability and frequency, and high dependency and
uncertainty of transactions. That help define needs and types for new public
interventions in agro-ecosystem services.
Akhirnya, kita harus mengidentifikasi model-model alternative
intervensi public yang mampu mengoreksi pasar. Kegagalan privat dan
publik; menilai efisiensi komparatifnya, dan memilih alternative yang paling
efisien.
It is essential to compare practically (technically, socially) possible forms of
governance which correspond to social preferences for benefits, instruments, and
costs. Comparative efficiency is to be evaluated in terms of coordination,
incentive, conflict resolution and (transaction) costs minimization potential. Public
modes not only facilitate (market, private) transactions but also command
significant (public and private) costs. That is why assessment is to comprise
all implementation and transaction costs – direct (tax payer, assistance agency)
expenses, and transacting costs (for coordination, stimulation, information,
control of opportunism, mismanagement) of bureaucracy, and costs for
individuals’ participation in public modes (adaptation, information, paper
65
works, fees, bribes), and costs for community control over and
reorganization (modernization, liquidation) of public forms, and
(opportunity) “costs” of public inaction .
Organik Agro-Ecosystem Management
(The Social Sciences Year: 2010 Vol. 5 Issue: 6 Page No.: 532-537)
Penelitian ini mengkaji pengelolaan agroekosistem organik dan
men-sintesis proses pembelajaran petani organik yang dilakukan oleh Mr.
Kampan Laowongsri. Periode penelitian dilakukan antara November 2007
hingga September 2009. Mr. Kampan merupakan prototype petani
organik, yaitu system pertanian terpadu di propinsi Mahasarakarm. Sistem
pertanian organik ini secara structural sesuai dengan kaidah pengelolaan
yang mutualistik antara sumberdaya fisik dan biologis serta system
pengelolaan limbahnya. Limbah pertanian dirombak dan dikonversi
menjadi bahan-bahan yang bermanfaat dan digunakan dalam proses
usahatani.
The results showed that the accomplishment of his integrated organik farm
has been arose from his self-learning process, local wisdom principle and
advice which have been passed from generation to generation, trial and error,
government and private advise, community discussion and in and out
information. Mr. Kampan’s integrated organik farm structural is initiated not
only the optimization performance in the farm but also provided sustainable,
economically viable, address his farmers’ livelihoods, environmentally
friendly and the agricultural products is safe to consumers. Moreover, the
remaining agricultural products after his family consumption are making a
sale and provide the income for his family lives.
Pertanian organik merupakan system produksi pertanian yang
menghasilkan bahan pangan dan serat yang berkelanjutan secara social,
ekonomi
dan
ramah
lingkungan.
Sistem
pertanian
organik
mengkonsentrasikan pada kesuburan alamiah tanah, dan kemampuan
alamiah tanaman , ternak dan agroekosistem. Pertanian organik
mengurangi factor produksi eksternal dan meninggalkan penggunaan
bahan-bahan kimia sintetik.
Pertanian organic mengutamakan
penggunaan sisa-sisa residu tanaman, rabuk kandang, tanaman legume,
pupuk hijau, dan residu organic lainnya untuk sirkulasi hara dan energy
dalam system pertanian.
This farming includes creating the environmental sustainability by
maintaining natural balance and biological diversity that the organik agroecosystem management is similar to the nature and accompanies with using
local wisdoms. Therefore, the organik farming is an agricultural process
relying on the nature with mainly using biological processes to increase
products and prevent pests and accompanies with the circulation of
resources using in farms for maximum benefit. Hence, the organik farming
principle will conform to the local conditions in terms of economy, society,
weather and culture.
66
Pengelolaan agroekositem organik merupakan factor penting
dalam menentukan pengembangan pertanian berkelanjutan. Dengan
mempertimbangkan pengelolana ini, para petani harus “rajin, tekun dan
sabar” dalam budidaya tanaman dalam menerapkan metode-medote
budidaya tanaman seperti: pengelolaan kesuburan tanah dengan
mengutamakan aplikasi bahan organik, sirkulasi budidaya tanaman
dengan mengutamakan jensi-jenis tanaman local, tidak menggunakan
mesin-mesin pertanian untuk memelihara dan menyembuhkan sifat
struktur tanah, tidak menggunakan pestisida , herbisida, dan bahan kimia
lainnya, serta menanam tanaman penutup tanah untuk menggantikan
penggunaan bahan agrokimia.
Relationship of organik agro-ecosystem management from the prototyped organik
farmer learning processes.
Sumber: http://www.medwelljournals.com/fulltext/?doi=sscience.2010.532.537 …..
diunduh 26/6/2011)
Operasional pengelolaan agroekosistem pertanian oerganik
menekankan pada hubungan antara sumberdaya fisik dan biologi dengan
67
memperhatikan pengelolaan ekologis secara interdisipliner.
Semua
limbah yang ada telah diubah menjadi sumberdaya yang bermanfaat
untuk mendukung proses produksi untuk meningkatkan produknya.
This farm has generated circulating products that are sufficient for
consumption and sale in local community throughout a year. All resources in
the farm have mutualism relationship and are effectively circulated from one
resource to the other. This management then is mostly suitable for
agricultural ways of life in local areas. However, the succession of the organik
agro-ecosystem management relies on the diligent and patience of farmer
performance.
Pengelolaan ini tergantung pada praktek-praktek ageroekosistem
dan proses pembelajaran yang terus-menerus kearifan local yang
diturunkan dari nenek-moyang dan pengetahuan baru yang diperoleh
dengan beragam cara seperti studi-lapangan, percobaan dan ujicoba,
rekomendasi pemerintah dan lembaga suasta, serta diskusi di antara
petani. Ini semuanya telah menciptakan system pertanian yang tepat dan
spesifik lokasi. Kemudian pengelolaan telah berhasil dilakukan untuk
menghasilkan produk yang bagus dan layak untuk konsumsi dan income
bagi keluarga petani.
68
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