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Learning … Because y’all are so smart! Adaptability One of the greatest attributes of the human mind is our ‘adaptability’. Our capacity to learn new behaviors that help us cope with changing environments. What is learnable, we can potentially teach. What has been learned we can potentially change by new learning. Learning A relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience. How Do We Learn? We learn by association. Our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence. Ex. Smell and see fresh bread. Eat it. Feel fantastic (because carbs are awesome). Next time you see bread, you will expect for the same outcome to happen. Learning associations also feed our natural behaviors. As we repeat behaviors in a given context, the behaviors become associated with the contexts. Ex. The sleep posture we associate with bed, our walking routes to and from class and eating popcorn in a movie theatre. This can lead to habituation an organism’s decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it. Learning to associate own behavior with outcomes. Ex. If a trained seal claps it’s fins and barks, the trainer will give it a fish. Associative Learning Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be 2 stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and it’s consequences ( as in operant conditioning). Conditioning What the organism learns to associate together leads to conditioning. Conditioning is the process of learning associations. In classical conditioning, we learn to associate 2 stimuli, thus anticipate events. Ex. Lightning and thunder. In operant conditioning, we associate a response (our behavior) and it’s consequence and thus repeat acts followed by good results and avoid facts followed by bad results. Ex. Seal balances a ball, gets a fish and the ball balancing behavior is strengthened. Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Conditioning is the not the only way of learning. We can also learn from observational learning. What do others do around us and then we mimic it. Ex. Trained chimpanzees. Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning A type of learning in which one learns to link 2 or more stimuli and anticipate events. Ivan Pavlov – ‘Experimental investigation should lay a solid foundation for a future true science of psychology.’ He believed the basic laws of learning were the same for all animals. Classical conditioning is the basic form of learning by which all organisms adapt to their environment. Pavlov’s Dogs Pavlov’s Experiments Classical Conditioning Videos! Big Bang Theory Video 2 and Half Men Video Lead to behaviorism the view that psychology should (1) be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists agree with (1) but disagree with (2). Mental processes are more involved in research now, as the true ‘science’ of psychology comes out. Pavlov’s Experiments Noticed that when a dog was presented with food, they would salivate. Dog would salivate at the taste of food, sight of food, sight of food dish, person delivering food or even the sound of the footsteps of the person delivering the food. Experimented to see if the salivation was linked with food. Dog in isolated room, sounded a tone, gave the dog food. After a few times, the dog would salivate just at the sound of the tone. Changed the tone to a touch on the leg, a buzzer, a light, etc and the same result occurred. Why do you think Pavlov continued to test his experiment, after the tone proved his result? Due to the fact that the dog salivated when having food was a unlearned behavior, Pavlov called it an Unconditioned Response (UR) In classical conditioning, the unlearned, natural occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US) such as salivating when food is in the mouth. Pavlov called the food stimulus the unconditioned stimulus (US) in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally- naturally and automatically – triggers a response. Salivation in response to the tone was conditional upon the dog’s learning associated between the tone and the food. This is called the conditional response (CR) in classical conditioning, the learned response, to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS). The previously neutral tone stimulus that triggered the conditional salivation we now call the conditioned stimulus (CS) in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association, with an unconditioned stimulus (US) comes to trigger a conditioned response. Example Your dog comes running when he hears the electric can opener. What is the: UCS UCR NS CS CR Examples Your dog comes running when he hears the electric can opener. UCS – unconditioned stimulus – food in the can UCR – unconditioned response – comes running NS – neutral stimulus – electric can opener CS – conditioned stimulus – electric can opener CR – conditioned response – comes running Another example While listening to your car radio you accidentally rear end a blue car in front of you. Every time you now see blue cars, your heart starts to race. What is the: UCS UCR NS CS CR Another example While listening to your car radio you accidentally rear end a blue car in front of you. Every time you now see blue cars, your heart starts to race. UCS – unconditioned stimulus – hit a car UCR – unconditioned response – heart races NS – neutral stimulus – blue car CS – conditioned stimulus – blue car CR – conditioned response – heart races The UNS! Trick to remember the difference between these words: Conditioned = LEARNED, Unconditioned = UNLEARNED. Match the ‘uns’… duh! Test Yourself! An experimenter sounds a tone just before delivering an air puff, which causes your eye to blink. After several repetitions, you blink to the tone alone. US = UR = CS = CR= Acquisition Acquisition in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response. Pavlov had to address the question of timing with acquisition. How much time should lapse between presenting a neutral stimulus (tone) and the unconditioned stimulus. Usually only took about ½ a second. Delayed conditioning The CS precedes the US, but they overlap just a little. This is the best situation for conditioning, especially if the time delay between CS and US is short. Trace conditioning The CS precedes the US and they do not overlap. The longer the time delay between the CS and US, the more difficult conditioning is. Simultaneous conditioning The CS occurs at the same time as the US. This is not a good idea because it results in poor conditioning. The CS doesn’t predict the US at all in this situation. Backward conditioning The CS follows the US. Little or no conditioning takes place, unless the response is biologically predisposed. Higher order conditioning A process in which the CS in one conditioning experience is paired with a new NS creating a second – often weaker– CS. An animal learns that a tone predicts food then learns that a light predicts the tone. The animal begins to respond to the light alone. Higher Order Conditioning a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.) A new neutral stimulus can become a new conditioned stimulus. All that’s required is for it to become associated with a previously conditioned stimulus. Although Higher Order Conditioning tends to be weaker than first stage conditioning, it does influence us. Ex. Big dog associated with dog bite. Makes us afraid. Then a barking dog brings to mind the big dog, the barking alone can make you feel afraid. Associations can influence attitudes. Ex. Cartoon characters presented with ice cream vs. Brussel sprouts. What happens if the CS occurs repeatedly without the US? Will the Cs continue to elicit the CR? Pavlov found that if he continued to sound the tone without the food being presented, the salviation decreased. This illustrates extinction the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. However, if Pavlov waited a few hours before sounded the tone, the salivation would reappear. This illustrates spontaneous recovery the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response. Generalization When stimuli is similar enough to the original CS, it is called generalization the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. Generalization can be adaptive. Ex. Toddler afraid of moving car, can be also afraid of motorcycles/trucks. Ex. Person who was tortured is afraid of black shoes, as it was the first thing he saw when he was approached by his captors. Ex. Dog Poop Fudge. Discrimination Pavlov’s dogs were able to response to a specific tone and ignore other tones. Discrimination in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. Generalization vs Discrimination Generalization is quite automatic. Discrimination occurs as the result of overtraining – exposing the organism to the desired stimulus so many times that a response to anything similar doesn’t occur. The Office Extending Pavlov’s Understanding Extending Pavlov’s Understanding Cognitive Processes can lead to an expectation that an event will occur. This can lead to Learned Helplessness the helplessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events. An animal’s capacity for conditioning is constrained by it’s biology or it’s Biological Predispositions. Animals use this biological predisposition and their environment to learn and become conditioned to that environment. Hello! Evolution much? Ex. Food poisoning leads to food aversion. Ex. Colour red signals arousal, therefore attractive. Biopsychosocial Influences on Learning Classical Conditioning and Lupus What We Can Learn From Pavlov Classical conditioning applies to other organisms Showed how to study a topic scientifically and with an objective viewpoint. Pavlov’s work was applied by John Watson and his Baby Albert studies. Behaviorism John B. Watson viewed psychology as objective science generally agreed-upon consensus today recommended study of behavior without reference to unobservable mental processes not universally accepted by all schools of thought today Emotions Emotions can be classically conditioned. Emotions can also be classically conditioned. The American psychologist John Watson demonstrated that fears could be explained by the principles of classical conditioning. He did this by intentionally establishing a fear of rats in an 11 month old boy named Albert. They paired a white rat (NS) with a loud noise (UCS). Eventually the sight of the rat alone produced fear. Watson was able to demonstrate generalization because Albert feared furry white toys. He was also able to demonstrate discrimination because Albert didn’t fear all toys. This experiment could never be conducted today because of the ethical guidelines that are set by the American Psychological Association. The guidelines for human and animal research were explained earlier in the course. Watch Video clip on Baby Albert Taste Aversion Research of Garcia and Koelling Taste aversion can also be classically conditioned. The research of John Garcia and Robert Koelling showed how avoidance of certain tastes could develop through classical conditioning. On experiments with rats they discovered that it was possible to use a nausea-producing drug, or radiation as a UCS. By pairing that with any food in time the food alone produced the feeling of nausea. Operant Conditioning It’s one thing to classically condition a dog to salivate at the sight of food and the sound of a tone, but it’s another to teach a child to say please or an elephant to balance on it’s hind legs. These are examples of operant conditioning a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. How to tell the difference: While classical conditioning involves respondent behavior behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus, operant conditioning involves operant behavior behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences. B.F. Skinner Work focused on Edward Throndike’s Law of Effect Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely. Skinner developed behavioral technology that revealed principles of behavioral control. Was able to teach animals to do things ‘un-animal’ like. Ex. Pigeon turning in circles. Used the ‘Skinner Box’ or the operant chamber in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner Box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking. Skinner Box Video Skinner’s Experiements Skinner used shaping an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. Used successive approximations to get the rat to do what he wanted – ex. Food when close to the bar, food when touching the bar. Also used discriminative stimulus in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement). Ex. Food only when the rat presses the bar. Whining as an example of discriminative stimulus. Ex. Gold stars from teachers. Reinforcers and Rewards Skinner used reinforcers in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows and rewards as part of his research. He divided them into 2 categories: Positive Reinforcement increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. Negative Reinforcement increases behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response (Note: negative reinforcement is NOT punishment). Can we apply this to our school system? DISCUSS! Types of Reinforcers Remember… a reinforcement is any consequence that stremgthens behavior. Along those lines, Skinner also divided his reinforcers 4 more ways: 1) Primary Reinforcer an innately reinforcer stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need. These are unlearned. Ex. Food when hungry, or having a painful headache go away. 2) Conditioned Reinforcer a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer. Get their power from learned association with primary reinforcers. Ex. Rat with light that signals food, rat learns to look to light. 3) Immediate Reinforcers –produce quicker results, work for humans and rats 4) Delayed Reinforcers – do not work as well for rats, work for humans – ex. Paycheque. Reinforcement Scheduels Reinforcement is not only dependent on the type of reinforcement, the timing also play a large role in the outcome. Continuous Reinforcement reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. Partial/Intermittent Reinforcement reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement. Ex. Slot machines, giving into children’s tantrums even a few times will reinforce negative behavior. Reinforcement Schedules Skinner came up with 4 different reinforcement schedules, some rigidly fixed, some unpredictably variable: 1) Fixed Ratio Schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specific number of responses. 2) Variable Ratio Schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses 3) Fixed Interval Schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specific time has elapsed. 4) Variable Interval Schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals. Skinner’s Experiments Reinforcement Schedules Examples: Getting a paycheck every other week Pop quizzes Variable interval Slot machines at gambling casinos Fixed ratio Fly fishing: casting and reeling back several times before catching a fish Variable ratio Looking at your watch during a class until the end of the class Fixed interval A salesperson who gets paid on commission Variable ratio Calling the mechanic to find out if your car is fixed yet Variable interval A factory worker who is paid every time he finishes three pairs of pants Fixed interval Fixed ratio Calling a friend and getting a busy signal Variable interval Skinner’s Experiments Reinforcement Schedules Skinner and Punishment Reinforcement INCREASES a behavior, while punishment DECREASES a behavior. Way to learn not to repeat an undesirable behavior. Punishment an event that decreases the behavior that it follows. Negative (withdrawl) VS Positive (adverse stimulus) Punishment Skinner’s Experiments Punishment Skinner’s Experiments Punishment Negatives of using punishment Punished behavior is suppressed not forgotten Punishment teaches discrimination Punishment can teach fear Physical punishment may increase aggression Reinforcement & Punishment Positive Negative Reinforcement Add good Remove bad Punishment Add bad Remove good Reinforcement & Punishment A. Positive Reinforcement C. Positive Punishment B. Negative Reinforcement D. Negative Punishment PosP 1. When Olivia makes rude noises at the dinner table, she gets her mouth washed out with soap. She doesn’t make rude noises that often anymore. PosR 2. Little Joey gets yelled at when he acts up in class. Now he’s acting up even more. NegR 3. Because Tameka earned an A in each of her classes, she doesn’t have to do her usual chore of vacuuming this month. She’s now even more motivated to study. NegP 4. Ray came home past his curfew, so he was not allowed to drive for the following week. He hasn’t missed a curfew since. Reinforcement & Punishment A. Positive Reinforcement C. Positive Punishment B. Negative Reinforcement D. Negative Punishment PosR 5. Maria put in extra hours at work helping her boss finish a major project. She received a big bonus for her contributions. She’s now looking for other ways to contribute at work. NegP 6. When Thuy and Gurpreet were running around the living room, they crashed into the Playstation, breaking it. They now carefully walk through the living room. NegR 7. Chandler’s girlfriend, Monica, keeps bugging him to take her dancing. He finally agrees, and she quits bugging him. The next time she starts bugging him, he quickly agrees to do whatever it is. (Chandler’s behavior is changing.) PosR 8. Monica’s boyfriend, Chandler, gives in when she starts bugging him about something. Now whenever she wants something, she just starts bugging him. (Monica’s behavior is changing.) Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Variable Ratio Every so many; a set number After an unpredictable number; a changing number Interval Every so often; a fixed amount of time Unpredictably often; a changing amount of time Schedules of Reinforcement A. Fixed Ratio C. Fixed Interval B. Variable Ratio D. Variable Interval VR 1. Buying scratch-off lottery tickets and sometimes winning. FR 2. A hotel maid may take a 15-minute break after cleaning 10 rooms. FI 3. Receiving an allowance every Sunday. VI 4. Checking the front porch for a newspaper when the deliverer is extremely unpredictable. FI 5. Checking the oven to see if chocolate chip cookies are done, when baking time is known. Schedules of Reinforcement A. Fixed Ratio C. Fixed Interval B. Variable Ratio D. Variable Interval FR 6. A blueberry picker receives $1 after filling three pint boxes. VR 7. A charitable organization makes an average of 10 phone calls for every donation it receives. VI 8. Repeatedly calling a garage mechanic to see if your car is fixed yet. FR 9. A student’s final grade improves one level for every three book reviews submitted. VR 10. A professional baseball player gets a hit approximately every third time at bat Cognition and Operant Conditioning Skinner came up with the idea that there could be latent learning learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it. Ex. Children learning from watching parents, but may not immediately display that learning. Skinner based this idea of latent learning on the idea of the cognitive map a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map What drives you? Skinner also used the idea of latent learning and applied it to motivation. Insight learning a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem. Insight lead to intrinsic motivation a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake and extrinsic motivation a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment. Can we compare your intrinsic motivation for taking AP Psych to your extrinsic motivation? DISCUSS! Cognition and Operant Conditioning Over justification Effect the effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do the person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive If the learning is not part of the natural evolution, probably won’t stick. Ex. Animal training. Skinner’s Legacy Applications of Operant Conditioning At school In sports At home For selfimprovement. How do each of these apply to Skinner’s ideas? Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning Similarities between classical and operant conditioning Differences between classical and operant conditioning Let’s Compare! Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning Example 1 Your father gives you a credit card at the end of your first year in college because you did so well. As a result, your grades continue to get better in your second year. Is this an example of classical conditioning or operant conditioning? Answer This example is operant conditioning because school performance is a voluntary behaviour. The credit card is a positive reinforcement because it is given and it increases the behaviour. Example 2 Your car has a red, flashing light that blinks annoyingly if you start the car without buckling the seat belt. You become less likely to start the car without buckling the seat belt. Is this an example of classical conditioning or operant conditioning? Answer This example is operant conditioning because buckling a seat belt is voluntary. The flashing light is a punishment. The consequence is given. The behaviour of not buckling the seat belt decreases. Example 3 You eat a new food and then get sick because of the flu. However, you develop a dislike for the food and feel nauseated whenever you smell it. Is this an example of classical conditioning or operant conditioning? Answer This example is classical conditioning because nausea is an automatic response. The flu sickness is the US. The nausea is the UR. The new food is the CS. The nausea to the new food is the CR. Example 4 An individual receives frequent injections of drugs, which are administered in a small examination room at a clinic. The drug itself causes increased heart rate but after several trips to the clinic, simply being in a small room causes an increased heart rate. Is this an example of classical conditioning or operant conditioning? Answer This example is classical conditioning because the increased heart rate is an automatic response. The drug is the UCS. The accelerated heart rate is the UCR. The small room is the CS. Example 5 A lion in a circus learns to stand up on a chair and jump through a hoop to receive a food treat. Is this an example of classical conditioning or operant conditioning? Answer This example is operant conditioning because standing on a chair and jumping through a hoop are voluntary behaviours. The food treat is a positive reinforcement because it is given and it increases the behaviour. Example 6 A teacher has a policy of exempting students from the final exam if they maintain perfect attendance during the semester. His students’ attendance increases dramatically. Is this an example of classical conditioning or operant conditioning? Answer This example is operant conditioning because attendance is a voluntary behaviour. The exemption from the final exam is a negative reinforcement because you are being removed from writing the final. Example 7 You check the coin return slot on a pay telephone and find a quarter. You find yourself checking other telephones over the next few days. Is this an example of classical conditioning or operant conditioning? Answer This is an example of operant conditioning because checking the coin return slot is a voluntary behaviour. The quarter would be a positive reinforcement because it was given and it led to an increase in the behaviour. Example 8 Your hands are cold so you put your gloves on. In the future, you are more likely to put gloves on when it’s cold. Is this an example of classical conditioning or operant conditioning? Answer This is an example of operant conditioning because putting gloves on is a voluntary behaviour. The consequence is a negative reinforcement because the coldness is taken away and the behaviour of putting on gloves increases. Learning by Observation Higher animals, including humans can learn simply through enough observation. Also called social learning, observational learning learning by observing others, is one of the first ways we learn growing up. Modeling the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior, is one of the most common ways children can learn. Observational Learning Observational Learning and the Mirrors in our brain. While studying animals and how the imitate humans, scientists found a whole new type of neuron, the mirror neuron frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy. For example, in a study with monkeys when the monkey grasped and held a branch, the neurons would fire or become active. They also became active when the monkey observed another monkey performing the same task. The same thing happens in humans. This helps to explain why we have the ability to pick up on the clues to how others are feeling. Children see, children do. The imitation of models shapes even very young children’s behaviour. Developmental psychologists have shown that shortly after birth, a baby may imitate an adult who sticks out his tongue. By 9 months, infants imitate new behaviours, and by 14 months, children imitate what they see on TV. We will discuss the effects of TV later in the lesson. Television and Observational Learning Do Video Games Teach People to Be Violent The Leader in Observational Learning: Bandura Bandura’s bobo doll experiment. A preschool child works on a drawing, while an adult plays with Tinkertoys. All of a sudden the adult gets up and for 10 minutes, beats the living daylights out a doll and leaves. Child taken to a new room with appealing toys. Child is only in the room for a brief time before being removed and told that the ‘good toys are for other children’. Child taken to last room, with less appealing toys and the same doll from room 1. What does the child do? Bandura’s Experiments Bandura’s Experiments Bandura’s BoBo Doll Experiment What Came out of the Bobo Doll Experiments? What determines whether we will imitate a model? Bandura believes part of the answer lies in reinforcements and punishments – those received by the model as well as those by the imitator. By watching, we learn to anticipate a behavior’s consequences in situations like those we are observing. We especially like to imitate people we perceive similar to ourselves, as successful or as admirable. Applications of Observational Learning Prosocial vs Antisocial Effects effects positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior. Prosocial effects –abuse is passed down, TV influence, etc. Antisocial Models who are positive and helpful, which means that they engage in prosocial behaviour, can prompt similar behaviour in others. For example, Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr., both modeled nonviolence. Charity campaigns in schools are effective when even a few students spearhead projects to help those in need. Models who are negative, destructive and not helpful, which means that they engage in antisocial behaviour, can also prompt similar behaviour in others. Typical teenagers spend more time watching television, playing video games, and surfing the Internet than they do in school. With all of the violence portrayed in these forms of media does being exposed to this violence affect children? Vicarious learning This is a type of observational learning. It depends on the learner understanding consequences. Observational learning can occur without consequences. Examples of observational learning 1. Television executives seem to know what they are doing when they use canned laughter. Experiments indicate that the technique causes an audience to laugh louder and more often when humorous material is presented. 2. Advertisers love to tell us that their product is the fastest growing or largest selling. The fact that many others are using it prompts us to buy it. More examples 3. Bartenders and baristas see their tip jars with a few dollars to demonstrate appropriate customer behaviour. 4. The producers of charity telethons devote a great deal of time to listing the viewers who have already pledged contributions on the premise that others will follow suit. Putting it all together Many pioneering researchers have devoted their careers to understanding how we learn. For each of the following individuals, identify the type of learning researched, briefly explain the nature of the research conducted, and provide an implication of the research for human behaviour in the real world. Ivan pavlov John Watson John Garcia B.F.Skinner Albert Bandura
